HANDBOOK 


OF 


DRAWING 


W.WALKER, 


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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

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OF  CALIFORNIA 

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HANDBOOK   OF    DRAWING. 


FIG.  152, 


HANDBOOK  OF  DRAWING 


BY 

WILLIAM    WALKER 

LECTURER   AND    TEACHES   OF    FREEHAND    DRAWING    IN   THE    OWENS     COLLEGE 


WITH  UPWARDS  OF  TWO  HUNDRED  WOODCUTS 
AND  DIAGRAMS 


'Art  is  universal  in  its  influence ;  so  may  it  be  in  its  practice,  if  it  proceed  from  a 
sincere  heart  and  quick  observation.  In  this  case  it  may  be  the  merest  sketch,  or  the 
most  elaborate  imitative  finish.  Either  will  be  whole  and  perfect.' — GOETHE. 


American  from  ilje  Sfecoub  (Kitglblj 


*      NEW  YORK 

CHARLES   SCRIBNER'S   SONS 

743  AND  745  BROADWAY 

1880 


Art 
Library 


1(0 


PREFACE 
TO    THE    AMEKICAN    EDITION. 


THE  very  fair  proposal  of  Messrs.  Scribner  to 
issue  this  Handbook  in  America  aifords  me  the  sat- 
isfactory prospect  of  extended  usefulness  amongst 
the  real  amateurs  of  a  great  country ;  and  I  shall 
indulge  the  hope  that  it  may  meet  with  as  kind 
and  appreciative  a  reception  in  America  as  it  has 
done  in  England. 

WILLIAM  WALKER. 

THE  OWENS  COLLEGE, 
Manchester,  February,  1880.  vii 


PREFACE 
TO    THE    FIRST    EDITION. 


THE  purpose  of  this  work  is  to  furnish  such  informa- 
tion on  Elementary  Art  Education  as  is  not  likely  to  be  met 
with  in  any  other  compact  form.  It  has  been  prepared 
under  the  guiding  principle  that  all  true  education  consists 
in  the  cultivation  of  the  judgment. 

Books  of  Examples,  good  and  bad,  are  in  abundance  ; 
but  the  language  of  Art, — any  more  than  Greek  or  Ger- 
man,— is  not  to  be  learned  by  merely  copying  its  signs. 
Art  has  its  grammatical  elements  and  rules,  and  should  be 
studied  in  its  exact  delineative  and  intellectual  aspect,  as 
well  as  in  its  more  emotional  expression.  The  former  will 
find  its  sphere  in  the  class-room,  the  latter  amidst  the 
beauties  of  Nature,  or  in  the  studio. 

The  information  here  presented,  and  the  practice 
recommended,  will  enable  the  student  to  make*  truth- 
ful and  significant  outlines,  and  drawings  from  outlines 
and  diagrams  put  before  him  in  lecture-rooms  and 

elsewhere. 

ix 


x  Preface. 

The  work  has  been  prepared  chiefly  during  intervals 
of  physical  suffering,  and  has  many  imperfections.  Two 
courses  only  were  open  to  me — either  to  let  the  hours  pass 
away  useless  to  others  as  to  myself,  or  to  bring  out  the  book 
in  its  present  form,  and  I  chose  the  latter.  The  desire  and 
duty  to  help  my  fellows  are  my  reasons  and  apology  for 
issuing  this  little  volume. 

WILLIAM  WALKER. 

Fairlands,  Hayfield. 


ADDRESS  TO  STUDENTS. 


As  a  false  start,  or  a  wrong  bias,  may  lead  to  failure, 
an  inquiry  or  two,  which  perhaps  has  not  occurred  spon- 
taneously in  entering  upon  this  new  field  of  work,  is  here 
suggested,  and  a  few  indispensable  facts  are  stated  which 
may  prevent  such  wrong  tendency  at  the  outset. 

In  the  first  place,  then,  let  us  ask,  Why  do  we  wish 
to  learn  to  draw  ?  To  reply,  Because  we  like  it,  would 
hardly  be  deemed  satisfactory,  or  worthy  of  thoughtful 
men  ;  but  if  our  reply  should  be,  Because  it  may  be  useful, 
that  certainly  would  be  more  reasonable.  But,  suppose 
our  answer  should  take  a  higher  form,  and  we  should 
say  that  we  wish  to  study  Art  in  order  to  develop  in 
us  those  nobler  faculties  which  God  has  given  for  the 
appreciation  of  His  works  in  nature  cesthetically,  as  Science 
enables  us  to  do  intellectually,  then  we  at  once  come  to  the 
root  of  the  matter ;  we  start  with  a  worthy  motive,  and 
may  reasonably  expect  success. 

In  beginning,  then,  the  study  of  this  new  language, 
let  us  ask,  "What  course  will  be  most  likely  to  secure  the 
results  we  seek  ?  The  answer  would  undoubtedly  be, 
That  course  which  would  lead  to  an  acquaintance  with 
the  fundamental  principles  on  which  the  Art  is  based. 
Just  so.  And  in  the  pursuit  of  any  subject  of  this  nature 
we  should  naturally  expect  to  go  through  some  labour, 
perhaps  drudgery,  of  preparation,  equivalent  to  learning 


xii  Address  to  Students. 


French  verbs,  or  writing  Greek  hexameters,  and  not  unwill- 
ingly, provided  always  that  we  were  *  certain  that  such 
labour  would  bring  us  nearer  to  the  desired  goal. 

It  is  just  in  this  temper  that  we  ask  a  student  to  study 
Art,  remembering  at  the  same  time  that,  whilst  French 
verbs  and  Greek  hexameters  will  occasionally  be  useful 
and  pleasant,  the  language  he  now  proposes  to  study  is 
closely  related  to  everything  about  him ;  and  that,  in 
fact,  many  of  the  Arts  and  Sciences  are  utterly  incom- 
prehensible without  its  aid.  What  would  be  thought 
of  a  work  on  Physics,  or  Chemistry,  or  Anatomy,  or 
any  physical  science  whatever,  without  illustrations  ? 
Language  alone  is  one  of  the  worst  means  of  expressing 
form,  while  drawing  is  incomparably  the  best.  Physical 
science  stands  still  so  soon  as  it  becomes  <a  reasoned 
statement  instead  of  a  sense-subjected  fact.'  To  a  medical 
student  drawing  will  be  as  indispensable  as  Latin ;  and 
even  Mathematics  would  be  impossible  of  acquirement 
without  sensible  form. 

To  learn,  there  should  be  action  with  perception,  and 
enjoyment  with  power ;  for  '  Art  is  conversant  with  hand 
and  eye,  main  sources  of  power,  pleasure,  and  perception.' 

A  youthful  mind  should  not  stand,  phial-like,  to  re- 
ceive so  much  instruction  from  this  master,  now  so  much 
from  that — so  much  Chemistry,  then  so  much  Geology 
and  so  on  ;  but  rather  it  should  be  treated  as  a  mysterious 
agent,  which,  gathering  to  itself  knowledge  of  all  kinds, 
weaves  it  into  a  new  development  of  that  which  is  the 
i  111:11:0  of  God  Himself. 


INTRODUCTION. 


IF  it  were  announced  on  the  Manchester  Exchange,  or 
amongst  any  other  large  gathering  of  intelligent  men,  that 
not  one  in  every  hundred  of  them  could  see  correctly  the 
appearance  of  the  walls  or  windows  about  them,  it  might 
cause  no  small  amount  of  surprise,  if  not  disconcert ;  yet 
such  is  probably  the  fact. 

Millions  of  persons  pass  through  life  unconscious  of  the 
change  that  takes  place  in  the  appearance  of  things  around 
us,  yet  each  time  we  move  an,  inch  a  complete  alteration 
in  the  appearance  of  everything  is  the  result.  Appear- 
ances are  constantly  at  variance  with  facts,  and  vision, 
like  any  other  faculty,  requires  cultivation.  It  is  not  be- 
cause our  eyes  are  open  that  we  therefore  see.  The  mind 
requires  to  be  furnished  with  some  means  by  which  the 
eye  may  be  able  to  judge  accurately  of  the  form  which 
every  object  assumes  under  various  aspects.  This  contin- 
ual change  of  things  is  an  infinite  source  of  pleasure,  es- 
pecially when  we  are  in  the  midst  of  landscape,  but  is  so 
constant  and  common  to  us  that  we  fail  fully  to  enjoy  it. 
If  there  were  not  variety  both  in  general  form  and  color, 
as  well  as  in  the  detailed  appearances  of  things,  the  world 
would  be  full  of  monotony.  An  oblong  room  is  more 
pleasant  to  dwell  in  than  a  square  one.  A  circular  room 
would  be  wearisome. 


xiv  Introduction. 


The  actually  different  hues  and  colours  in  the  world  is 
another  infinite  source  of  pleasure,  but  much  enjoyment 
of  it  is  lost  because  we  are  not  quick  to  observe,  or  we  have 
not  been  trained  fully  to  appreciate.  If  a  knowledge  of 
music,  and  a  well-trained  ear,  are  necessary  to  a  full  ap- 
preciation and  enjoyment  of  sound,  how  important  is  it 
that  the  mind  should  be  furnished  with  all  the  helps,  both 
of  knowledge  and  feeling  (love),  so  necessary  to  the  appre- 
ciation and  enjoyment  of  the  charms  of  form  and  colour  by 
which  we  are  surrounded.  If  it  be  considered  necessary 
that  young  persons  should  spend  so  much  time  in  the  prac- 
tice of  music,  is  it  not  equally  important  to  cultivate  the 
eye  to  observe,  and  the  hand  to  note  things  in  this  beauti- 
ful world,  which  would  immensely  enlarge  and  enrich  our 
minds  with  fine  thoughts  and  imagery  ? 

As  the  eye  is  the  most  important  gateway  of  knowledge, 
so  far  as  the  physical  world  is  concerned,  it  ought  to  re- 
ceive great  culture,  even  with  only  a  utilitarian  motive, 
for  the  time  is  rapidly  approaching  when  drawing  will 
demand  its  right  place  in  education  in  this  country.  With 
the  Greeks,  writing  and  drawing  were  synonymous  ;  and 
in  France  and  Germany  every  child  is  taught  to  draw  just 
as  he  is  taught  to  write,  and  much  time  is  given  to  the 
practice  of  both  ;  and  if  England  is  to  hold  her  own  in 
the  Arts  she  must  pay  more  attention  to  the  right  teach- 
ing of  drawing  and  the  principles  of  Art  as  a  primary 
step. 

Every  purchase  we  make  of  anything  with  a  design 
or  pattern  about  it,  encourages  good  or  bad  Art,  though 


Introduction.  xv 


we  do  not  think  so  at  the  time.  We  are  too  apt  to  buy 
what  pleases  us,  instead  of  what  is  good  in  quality  and  pure 
in  design,  as  well  as  suited  to  its  place  and  purpose. 

No  doubt  everybody  has  taste  ;  but  taste  may  be  good 
and  pure,  or  it  may  be  bad  and  false.  If  those  who  buy 
Art,  and  are  in  a  sense  its  patrons,  do  not  know  what  is 
good,  so  as  to  distinguish  it  from  what  is  bad,  it  is  useless 
to  expect  manufacturers  to  work  artistically,  or  shopmen 
to  sell  that  which  is  true, — they  must  prepare  what  the 
public  will  buy.  It  is  most  desirable,  therefore,  that  the 
public  generally,  as  well  as  the  manufacturer,  should  know 
what  is  right  in  Art. 

True  education  in  man,  whether  as  applied  to  Art  or 
morals,  is  that  which  fits  him  to  become  the  highest  and 
best  of  his  nature's  capability ;  first,  in  view  of  the 
Infinite  Creator  of  all  things,  the  *  Father  of  us  all ; '  and, 
secondly,  in  view  of  himself  and  his  surroundings,  whether 
of  the  material  universe — the  world,  or  of  the  spiritual 
universe,  as  manifested  in  man,  and  perfectly  only  in  the 
one  perfect  Man.  In  this  great  work  surely  the  study  of 
Art  is  an  important  factor. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.   ON  DRAWING 1 

II.   ON  THE  EYE 7 

III.  ON  SEEING  AND  OBSERVING        ......  12 

IV.  ON  HOLDING   THE  PENCIL 20 

V.   ON  LINES             .........  23 

VI.    ON  OUTLINE 26 

VII.   ON  SKETCHING 29 

Vni.   ON  LIGHT  AND  SHADE 37 

IX.   ON  DRAWING   FROM   FLAT  COPIES 55 

X.   SUGGESTIONS  FOR  A  COURSE  OF  STUDY       ....  57 

XI.   ON  CONTRAST     .........  76 

XII.   ON  RELIEF .          .  81 

xra.  ON  SIZE    .        .        .        .....       ...        .  83 

XIV.  ON  PROPORTION           .          .          .....          .  86 

XV.  ON  SYMMETRY   .           .           .           .           .           .           .           .           .  89 

XVI.   ON  SECURING  CHARACTER  IN  ART  WORK    ....  92 

XVII.    ON  TASTE             .           .'.'-. 95 

XVIII.    ON  STYLE 99 

XIX.   ON   MOTIVE 101 

XX.    ON  BEAUTY          .           .           .         _ 107 

XXI.    ON   FITNESS         ...           .           .           .           .           .           .  110 

XXII.    ON   VARIETY        . 112 

b  xvii 


xviii  Contents. 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XXIII.  ON   UNITY 118 

XXIV.  ON  COMPOSITION 120 

XXV.   ON  LIOUT  AND  SHADE  AS  APPLIED  TO  GROUPS  OF  OBJECTS 

AND  TO  PICTURES 130 

XXVI.   LAWS    OP    NATURE,    AND    THEIR    APPLICATION    AS  PRINCI- 
PLES OF  ART 138 

XXVII.   SKETCH,    STUDY,    PICTURE 145 

XXVIII.   ON  GRASS,    HERBAGE,    ETC 153 

XXIX.   ON  TREES 160 

XXX.   ON  PRACTICE   FOR  TREE  DRAWING 181 

XXXI.   ON   WATER 187 

XXXII.   ON  SKIES 193 

XXXIII.  ON  DRAWING   FIGURES  AND   ANIMALS           ....  204 

XXXIV.  ON  CRITICISM 210 

PART  II. 

XXXV.   ON  PERSPECTIVE.      INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS      .           .           .  215 

XXXVI.   ON  ARTISTIC   PERSPECTIVE 218 

XXXVII.   ON  TECHNICAL  PERSPECTIVE 238 

APPENDIX. 

A.— ON  CHILDREN'S  DRAWING        .......  263 

B. — ON  THE  DIASCOPE 264 

C. — PENCIL-IN-HAND  MEASUREMENT 266 

D. — NOTE  ON  TEACHING 207 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


•Frontispiece.  PAaE 

Rough  sketches  of  tea-kettle,  &c 2,  3 

Figs.  1,  2.     Order  for  a  box.     Moulding 

,,     3.     'Effect' for  Frontispiece 13 

,,     4,  5.     Lotus  plant.     Scroll 15 

,,     6,     Iron  bracket  for  lamp 16 

,,     7,  la.  Hands 20 

,,     1b,  c.  Hand  and  pencils .21 

„     Id.  File  box 22 

,,  8,  9,  10.     Rectilinear,  curvilinear,  and  compound  forms      .      24 

„     11,  12,  13.     Circle,  cube,  apple 26 

,,  14,  15,  16,  17.     Irregular  form,  shoe,  convolvulus,  stone      .      27 

,,  18,  19.     Sketch  of  wheel.     Outline  of  picture       ...      30 

,,    20.    Coast  scene,  by  J.  D.  Harding 32 

„  21.     Female  figures,  by  J.  D.  Harding         ....      33 

„  22.     Outlines  of  faces    .        .        .        .                 .        .        .34 

,,     23.     Outlines  of  tree  trunks 35 

,,  24.     Window         ....        .                 .        .        .        .36 

,,     25.     Diagram,  showing  rays  of  light 39 

,,     26.     Illumination  of  objects 40 

,,  27.     Jar  and  hoop,  showing  cast  shadows     ....      41 

,,     28,  29.     Blocks,  showing  reflections 43 

,,  30.     Base  of  pillar  and  stick,  showing  cast  shadows      .        .      45 

,,  31.     Doorways,  showing  effect  of  cast  shadow      ...      46 


xx  List  of  Illustrations. 

PAGE 

Figs.  3  la.  Opening  in  wall,  showing  retirement  of  shade  .  .  46 

32.  Wooden  platter  and  knife  ......  47 

.,  33.  Portion  of  tree 48 

„    34.     Pillar     .        .        ...        .        .        .       *.        .49 

„    35,36.     Pairs  of  feet     .        .        .        .  .     /.        .51 

„  37,  38,  39.  Roofs 52 

Old  twine  shed 54 

,,  40.  Leaves  ' blocking  in' 59 

Flat  tint GO 

,,  41.  Outline  sketch  of  boat 61 

Graduated  tint 63 

,,  42,  43,  44.  Different  views  of  squares 65 

,,  45,46.  Two  views  of  round  table 66 

,,  47.  Transparent  cube 67 

,,  48,  49.  Angular  views  of  squares 67 

.,  50.  Angular  view  of  square 68 

„  51.  Eye-stand 69 

„  52,  53.  Chairs 70 

„  54,55.  Barreland 'What-not' 70 

„    56.    Portions  of  cylinders     ........  71 

„  57.  Outline  sketch,  after  J.  M.  W.  Turner  ...  72 

,,58.  „  M  ...  73 

„  59,  60.  Diagrams,  to  show  contrast 77 

„  61.  „  „  78 

,,  62.  Dancing  figures,  after  Watteau,  by  J.  D.  Harding  .  79 

Boat 80 

„  68,  64,  65.  Arches,  showing  relative  size  ....  84 

,,  66.  Diagram,  showing  proportion 87 

. .  67.  Ovals,  showing  symmetry 90 

Landscape 91 


List  of  Illustrations.  xxi 

PAGE 

Pigs.    68,  69.     Twigs,  showing  character 92 

„      70.     Hamper  ,,  94 

„      71,  72.     Jugs      .  ' 96 

Scroll  .."....-....      98 

Umbrella '      .        .-100 

„       73,  74.     Child's  drawing,  showing  truth  and  falseness        .     101 

Acorn          .        .        .        .  * 106 

Vase •        -109 

,,       75.     Diagram  of  circle,  showing  segments  ....     113 

„      76.  „  oval  „  .        .        .        .     lt4 

„       76a,  b.      „  ovals         .        ...        .        .        .     115 

,,       77.  ,,  showing  how  to  construct  ovoids     .        .116 

Rhine  boats         .        ...        .        .        .        .117 

,,      78.     Contents  of  a  pocket    .        .- 121 

,,       79,  80.     Two  compositions,  glass,  sketch-book,  &c.     .        .     122 
,,      81,  82,  83,  84.     Lines,  showing  relation,  &c.       .        .        .     123 

,,      85,  86.     Crocus,  vase 123 

,,      87,  88.     Composition  lines  in  pictures        ....     124 

,     „      89,  90.  „  „  .-.'..'.     124 

,,91.  „  „  .'.._..     125 

„       92.     The  discovered  letter '.        .        ...        .        .        .125 

,,      93.     The  prisoner 126 

,,       94,  95.     Composition  lines 126 

„      96,  97.     Repose  and  Contrast      .        .        ...        .127 

,,      98.    Division  of  picture      .        .  ,        .        .        .     128 

.       ~       .......        .129 

„      99.    Bolton  Abbey,  by  J.  D.  Harding       .        .        .        .134 

,,     100.     Italian  buildings  ,,  •  .  _•  •        •        •        «     135 

,,     101.     Lane  in  Surrey  ,,  ...        .        .     136 

Bit  of  road  .  137 


xxii  List  of  Illustrations. 

PAGE 

Figs.  102,  103.     Primitive  candlesticks 139 

„     104,  105.     Candlesticks 140 

„     106.     Candlestick 141 

„     107,  108,  109.     Cups 142 

„     110.    Facsimile  of  Wilkie's  first  idea  of  the  '  Rabbit  on  the 

Wall' 147 

„     111.    Sketch  of  field-flower 148 

„     112.            „        beehive 148 

,,     113.    Sketch  of  sheep  on  a  common 148 

..     114.           „        old  window 149 

•  •     115.           ,,        Dame  Campbell's  henroost  ....  149 

„     116.           „        bridge 150 

„     117.    Study  of  tree  trunk 151 

•»     H8.            ..      grass  blades 152 

„     119,  120.     Outlines  of  leaf .156 

„     121,  122.    Notes  of  leaves .        .        .157 

. .     123,  124.     Preparation  for  grass  .        .        .        .-'"-.        .  158 

„     125.     Herbage 159 

,,     126.     Concentric  rings  of  tree  trunk 163 

„     127,  128,  129,  130.    Oak  leaves  and  spray    .        .        .        .164 

,,,     131,  132.     Branches  of  oak  and  sycamore     ....  165 

„     183.    Oak  tree .  168 

..     134.    Ash  tree 169 

..     135.    Ash  spray 171 

,,  '  136.     Umbrella  diagram 172 

,,     137.    Shade  exercise 173 

,,     138.    Sycamore  tree 174 

„     139.     Birch  tree 175 

,,     140.     Shade  exercise 176 

„     141.     Beech  stems  (J.  D.  Harding)       ...  177 


List  of  Illustrations.  xxiii 

PAGE 

Figs.  142.    Scotch  fir 179 

,,     143,  144.     Tree-shade  exercise 182 

,,     145.     Exercise  for  tree  contour 183 

„     146,147.          „  , 184 

,,     148.     Portion  of  oak 185 

Tree  trunk 186 

„  149.     Diagrams,  showing  angle  of  reflection        .        .        .     188 

„  150.            „                       „                    „                                       189 

„     151.     Looking-glass,  &c -    .        .        .     189 

,,  152.     Frontispiece. 

,,  153.     Diagrams,  showing  curvature  of  waves      .        .        .     190 

,,    154.    Cumulus  at  rest 198 

„  155.           „       after  travel  .        .        .        .        .        .        .199 

,,     156.     Creeping  mist 202 

,,  157.     Clouds  seen  from  above      ......    203 

„    158.    Coast  scene  (J.  D.  Harding) 206 

„    159.  „  „ 207 

„  160,  161,  162.     Figures,  after  Prout    .        .        .        .        .209 

„    163.    Figures,  after  J.  D.  Harding 209 

„     164.    Oak  spray .217 

,,     165.     Transparent  cube 218 

Cube  diagram  .        .     '  .        .        .        .       ".    218 

„  168.    Book    .        .        .       ...      i|        .  •     .                ,        -219 

„  169.     Cube    .        .        .        .        .        .      •  .        .        .        .     220 

„  170.    Arm-chair  ....       .        .        .    ;    .        .        .220 

„  171,  172,  173.     Outline  blocks      .        .        .        .        .        .221 

„     174.     Transparent  cubes       .  •      ./ 222 

„  175.     Twenty  cubes      .        ...        .        .        ...    223 

,,  176.     Transparent  cubes  upright         .....     224 

„  177.     Interior  of  room  .                                                            ,    225 


xxiv  List  of  Illustrations. 

PAGE 

Figs.  178.     Diagram  of  room 226 

„     179,  180.    Blocks  of  buildings 227 

„    181,  182.    Two  views  of  shed 228 

„    183,  184.     Uphill  and  downhill 229 

,,     185,  186.     Angular  view  of  square  and  cube        .        .        .  230 

,,     187.    Angular  view  of  cube 231 

„     188.     Transparent  cube 232 

„    189.             „           cubes 233 

„     190.    Block  of  buildings 238 

,,     191.    Angular  view  of  cube 234 

„    192,  193,  194.     Chairs  and  piano  .        .        .        .        .        .235 

„    195.    Group  of  models 237 

„     196,  197.     Square  and  circle 239 

„     198,  199,  2CO.     Ground  plan  and  views  of  three  cubes .        .  240 

„    201,  202,  203.               „                    „         six  cubes     .        .  241 

„    204.    Block  of  buildings  from  same  ground  plan         .        .  242 

Diagram  1.    Appliance,  illustrative  of  perspective  terms     .        .  244 
„        2,  8.    Showing  same  in  profile,  and  flat        .       *        .  245 
,,        4,  5.           ,,      how  to  find  distance  points  and  vanish- 
ing points 248 

„        6,  7,  8.       ,,      parallel  views  of  square  and  oblong        .  251 

,,        9,  10.          „            „             ,,      circle  and  cube    .        .  254 

„        11,  12.     Explanatory  of  angular  view    ....  256 

„        13.    Angular  view  of  cube 258 

,,        14.           ,,            ,,      tomb-stone 261 

Figs.  205.     Diascopc 265 

„    206,  207.     Hands  measuring       ......  266 

Kettle,  &c ,268 


HANDBOOK  OF  DRAWING. 


PART  I. 

CHAPTER    I. 

ON  DEAWING.* 

1.  THE  misunderstanding  of  the  term  free-hand 
drawing  has  led  to  considerable  confusion.  It  was 
originally  applied  to  the  copying,  without  instruments, 
of  a  series  of  outline  designs  issued  by  the  Department 
of  Science  and  Art,  and  has,  unfortunately,  become 
associated  with  that  alone.  Eightly  understood  it  has  a 
much  wider  significance,  and  should  be  applied  to  all 
drawing  where  instruments,  such  as  compasses,  rulers, 
&c.,  are  not  used.  In  geometric  drawing,  instruments  are 
used,  and  therefore  this  is  not  free-hand  work.  Strictly 
speaking,  models,  flowers,  landscapes,  drawn  without 
mechanical  assistance,  ought  to  be  considered  as  free- 
hand drawing. 

*  A  definition  of  the  term  '  drawing '  must  be  very  comprehensive 
if  it  is  not  to  exclude  some  art  into  which  drawing  enters  more  or 
less.  Hamerton  says  : — '  If  we  say  that  drawing  is  a  motion  which 
leaves  significant  marks,  we  are  as  precise  as  the  numerous  varieties  of 
the  art  will  permit  us  to  be.' 

1 


On  Drawing. 


2.  Its  elementary  study  is  the  first  step  towards  ex- 
pressing our  ideas  through  the  medium  of  art,  and  should 
be  practised  more  or  less  from  earliest  infancy  as  a  most 
useful  language,  by  which  the  perceptive  faculties  will  be 
quickened,  'and  knowledge  conveyed  in  a  sort  of  short- 
hand language  requiring  no  translation,  and  understood 
by  all.*  In  this  respect  it  has  often  a  great  advantage 

*  Atkinson,  the  well-known  Russian  traveller,  told  the  writer  that 
on  many  occasions  he  would  have  been  most  seriously  inconvenienced 
had  it  not  been  for  the  readiness  with  which  he  could  use  his  pencil. 
The  following  anecdote,  also,  will  show  the  advantage  of  being  ready 
with  this  universal  language.  An  artist  who  had  neglected  to  secure 
his  lunch  before  going  amongst  some  Welsh  mountains  for  his  day's 
painting,  after  some  hours'  work  began  to  feel  faint  for  want  of  food, 
and  seeing  a  cottage  at  some  distance,  went  to  inquire  if  he  could 
have  a  cup  of  tea.  His  reception  was  not  an  agreeable  one,  as  he  was 
attacked  by  a  couple  of  curs,  which  frightened  him  and  put  to  flight 
a  number  of  noisy  fowls.  On  the  good  woman  of  the  house  opening 
the  door  a  few  inches  the  artist  made  his  request  for  a  cup  of  tea,  to 
which  he  got  the  reply,  '  Dim  Sasenach '  (No  English).  After  again 
urging  his  request,  and  meeting  with  the  same  determined,  settled, 
and  settling  answer,  'Dim  Sasenach,'  he  bethought  him  of  his  jxxiket 
sketch-book,  which  had  been  of  like  service  to  him  among  the  moun- 
taineers of  Switzerland,  and  he  instantly  made  a  sketch  like  the 
following,  and  showed  it  to  the  unwilling  dame,  who,  recognising  his 


want,  instantly  opened  wide  the  door,  beckoned  him  into  the  cottage, 


On  Drawing. 


over  writing,  as  will  be  evident  if,  as  in  business,  we  wish  to 
describe  in  writing  almost  any  common  article  of  daily  use 
— say  a  sofa,  or  a  coal-vase — instead  of  drawing  it.  This  is 
a  strong  argument  in  favour  of  all  persons  learning  to  draw 
as  well  as  to  write. 

3.  The  question  is  often  asked,  '  Can  every  one  learn  to 
draw  ? '  and  although  it  may  seem  an  ignorant  question, 
it  had  better  be  answered.  All  persons  who  can  learn  to 

and  offered  a  chair.    In  an  unknown  language  two  children,  who  had 

concealed    themselves    behind  their  mother, 

were  hastily  despatched,  and  soon  returned, 

one  with  a  bundle  of  sticks  and  the  other  with 

a  can  of  spring  water.      Very  quickly  the 

kettle  was  boiling,  and  cakes  were  baking  on 

something  like  a  Scotch  '  griddle,'  hung  from 

a  chain  in  the  chimney.     Soon  the  artist  was 

enjoying  himself,  and   the  remembrance  of 

the  noisy  cackling   amidst  which  he  was  in- 
troduced, suggested  to  his  mind  the  possibility 

of  making  his  repast  more  substantial  by  the 

addition  of  a  few  eggs  ;   so  he  politely,  but 

thoughtlessly,  asked  his  hostess  if  she  could 

oblige  him  with  an  egg  or  two.     The  inevitable  '  Dim  Sasenach '  soon 

showed  him  his  mistake  ;   so,  getting   out    his   pocket    sketch-book, 

he  sketched  something  like  the  following  : — whereupon  the 

good  woman,  charmed  at  her  power  of  interpreting,  went  oft 

to  a  cupboard,  and  imme- 
diately returned  with  a 
large,  clean,  wooden  bowl, 
filled  with  eggs,  of  which 
the  rough  sketch  will  give 
an  idea.  Satisfied,  refreshed,  and 
again  ready  for  work,  the  artist 
prepared  to  depart,  but  not  before 

he  ascertained  the  power  of  his  hostess  to  understand,  without  any 

sketch,  the  value  of  English  silver. 


On  Drawing. 


write  can  learn  to  draw.  If  it  were  required,  '  Can  any  one 
become  an  artist  ? '  the  question  might  be  answered  by 
another,  '  Can  any  one  become  a  poet  ? '  Great  painters, 
like  great  poets  or  great  composers,  may  be  born,  but  not 
made.  But  though  there  are  not  many  Beethovens,  or 
Handels,  or  Mozarts  in  a  generation,  there  are  many  per- 
sons who  add  to  national  happiness  by  less  pretentious  ef- 
forts than  Oratorios  and  Masses.  On  the  Continent  draw- 
ing is  taught  to  all  children  in  the  best  national  schools, 
and  it  ought  to  be  taught  in  our  own  :  not  because  it  is 
insisted  on  in  Continent  schools,  but  because  it  would  be 
of  incalculable  service  in  the  business  of  life  to  those  who 
had  learnt  it.* 

4.  But  here  arises  an  important  question  :  What  do 
we  understand  by  learning  to  draw  ?  There  are  various 
kinds  of  drawing,  and  that  which  may  be  suitable  to  one 
purpose  may  not  be  applicable  to  another.  For  example, 
the  kind  of  drawing  and  knowledge  requisite  for  a  man  of 
culture  is  scarcely  that  best  suited  to  an  artisan.  The  first 
and  elemental  requirement  of  an  artisan  is  that  he  should 

*  The  following  remarks  from  Professor  Huxley  appeared  in  the 
Fortnightly  Review,  January  1878.     Speaking  of  the  preparation  for 
technical  teaching  he  says  : — '  And  especially  I  should  require  some 
ability  to  draw  :  I  do  not  mean  artistically,  for  that  is  a  gift  which  may 
be  cultivated,  but  cannot  be  learned,  but  with  fair  accuracy.     Every- 
body, or  almost  everybody,  can  learn  to  write ;  and,  as  writing  is  a  kind 
of  drawing,  I  suppose  that  the  majority  of  the  people  who  say  they  can- 
not draw,  and  give  copious  evidence  of  the  accuracy  of  their  assertion, 
could  draw,  after  a  fashion,  if  they  tried.     And  that  "  after  a  fashion  " 
would  be  better  than  nothing  for  my  pur[x>ses. 

•  I  Mi|.|M)s<'  that  in  nine  trades  out  of  ten  it  would  be  useful  if  he 
(the  student)  could  draw.' 


On  Drawing. 


be  able  to  draw  accurately,  say  a  brick,  and  understand  it 
when  it  is  drawn ;  for  if  he  can  draw  a  brick  he  can  draw 
a  box,  and  if  a  box,  then  a  table  ;  and  thus  he  has  a  safe 
foundation  on  which  to  build  his  knowledge  as  it  may  be 
required. 

5.  On  the  next  page  is  given  a  supposed  order  for  a  com- 
mon box,  which,  though  very  rough  (as  though  drawn  in 
haste),  would  be  clearly  understood  by  an  intelligent  work- 
man without  any  chance  of  error.     How  great  the  advan- 
tage of  drawing  in  this  case  is  over  a  written  description 
only,  may  be  felt  if  the  student  will  try  to  write  out  instruc- 
tions for  such  a  box  without  any  drawing — instructions 
that  might  not  only  be  understood,  but  that  could  not  be 
misunderstood. 

6.  To  those  who  travel,  even  a  little  knowledge  of  free- 
hand drawing,  as  here  understood,  will  be  not  only  useful 
but  delightful.     The  slightest  sketch  taken  by  oneself  will, 
in  after  years,  recall  more  of  the  circumstances  and  associa- 
tions than  a  lengthened  description,  or  even  a  photograph. 
Illustrations  of  this  kind  of  memorandum  sketch  will  be 
found  in  various  parts  of  the  work. 

7.  But  if  true  education  be  that  which  fits  a  person  for 
the  after  circumstances  of  life,  then  the  requirements  of  an 
educated  man  will  be  something  far  beyond  the  power  to 
sketch  a  few  simple  objects  intelligently.     He  must  have 
a  knowledge  of  the  general  principles  of  Fine  Art,  and 
such  power  in  practice  as  will  develop  in  him  that  aesthetic 
faculty  without  which  he  can  neither  fully  enjoy,  nor  accu- 
rately judge,  in  matters  of  taste. 


On  Drawing. 


Fio.  1. 


Fio.  2. 


CHAPTER   II. 

ON  THE  EYE. 

8.  OF  the  five  senses,  or  gateways  of  knowledge — seeing, 
and  hearing,  feeling,  tasting,  and  smelling — two,  seeing  and 
hearing,  belong  to  the  intellectual  part  of  our  nature,  whilst 
the  other  three  chiefly  supply  our  animal  wants.     The  sense 
of  seeing  is  at  once  the  most  active,  the  most  comprehensive, 
and  the  most  intellectual  of  them  all.     It  is  the  servant  of 
the  soul,  and  through  it  the  mind  receives  the  richest  vari- 
ety of  images,  or  ideas.     F.  W.  Robertson  says  that  'the 
highest  pleasure  of  sensation  comes  through  the  Eye.     She 
ranks  above  all  the  rest  of  the  senses  in  dignity.     He  whose 
eye  is  so  refined  by  discipline  that  he  can  repose  with  pleas- 
ure upon  the  serene  outline  of  beautiful  form,  has  reached 
the  purest  of  the  sensational  raptures.' 

9.  A  short  description  of  the  eye  is  given  at  page  9  ;  but 
it  may  here  be  briefly  stated,  that  when  an  object  is  placed 
before  the  eye,  the  light  from  it  passes  through  the  crystal- 
line lens,  and  an  image  is  formed  on  the  retina,  from  whence 
the  consciousness  of  it  is  conveyed  by  the  optic  nerve  to  the 
brain.* 

*  The  number  of  shocks  per  second  necessary  to  the  production  of 
the  impression  of  colour  is  as  follows  : — Red,  451  millions  of  millions  ; 
of  violet,  789  millions  of  millions.  All  these  waves  enter  the  eye, 
and  strike  the  retina  at  the  back  of  the  eye  in  one  second. — TYNDALL. 

7 


8  On  the  Eye. 

10.  The  eye  of  a  fish,  or  of  a  sheep,  is  probably  as  well 
adapted  to  the  purpose  of  their  life  as  is  that  of  a  human 
being ;    but  the   lower  animals,  being   chiefly  moved  by 
instinct,  have  their  organs  available  when  very  young  and 
with  little  training ;   whilst  a  very  young  infant,  though 
with    the   eye   perfect   as    an    organ,    requires    long    and 
frequent  practice  before   it  can  judge   even  of  distance. 
The  moon  and  its  mother's  face  probably  appear  equally 
near.     If  a  person  born  blind  obtains  his  sight  at  fifteen 
or  twenty  years  of  age,  he  is  said  to  have  no  idea  of  dis- 
tance by  sight ;  whilst  the  little  fish  that  gets  its  food  by 
shooting  a  drop  of  water  at  its  prey  scarcely  ever  misses; 
and  the  chick  that  has  only  just  emerged  from  the  shell 
pecks   away    at   the    crumbs,    distinguishing    them    from 
grains  of  sand  of  similar  size  and  colour. 

11.  The  human   eye   is   a  wonderfully   adapted,   self- 
acting,  self-regulating,  ^and  self-minding  organ,  for  seeing 
things  large  as  mountains  or  small  as  motes,  very  near  or 
millions  of  miles  away ;  but  it  requires  training. 

If  a  person  were  to  travel,  say,  from  Liverpool  to 
London,  and  hold  a  looking-glass  so  as  to  have  all  the 
objects  reflected  in  it  as  they  were  passed,  on  arriving  in 
London  there  would  be  nothing  left  on  the  glass  but  the 
last  image — perhaps  the  station  ;  all  the  other  myriads  of 
objects  would  be  gone.  It  is  just  so,  in  a  lesser  degree, 
with  many  persons  who  have  not  learned  to  use  their 
eyes  ;  whilst  others  are  more  like  a  sensitised  plate  in  a 
camera,  not  only  receiving  images,  but  photographing  and 
fixing  them  by  observation. 


On  the  Eye.  9 

12.  Considered  merely  as    an  organ,  the  eye  is  a  com- 
pound lens,  consisting  of  three  principal  parts,  the  aqueous 
humour,  the  crystalline  lens,  and  the  vitreous  humour. 

The  aqueous  humour  is  held  in  front  of  the  eye  by  the 
cornea,  a  transparent,  horny  capsule,  something  like  a  watch- 
glass  in  shape.  Behind  the  aqueous  humour,  and  immedi- 
ately in  front  of  the  crystalline  lens,  is  the  iris,  which  sur- 
rounds the  pupil.  Then  follow  the  lens  and  the  vitreous 
humour.  Behind  this  is  a  black  pigment,  upon  which  the 
delicate  network  of  nerves,  called  the  retina,  is  spread.  It 
is  this  delicate  screen,  the  retina,  that  receives  the  images  of 
things  with  such  marvellous  rapidity,  and  conveys  them 
through  the  optic  nerve  to  the  brain. 

13.  By  means  of  the  iris  the  size  of  the  pupil  may  be 
caused  to  vary.     When  the  light  is  feeble  the  pupil  ex- 
pands, and  when  it  is  intense  the  pupil  contracts;  thus 
the  quantity  of  light  entering  the  eye  is  to  some  extent 
regulated. 

14.  The  pupil  also  diminishes  when  the  eye  is  fixed 
upon  a  near  object,  and  expands  when  it  is  fixed  upon  a 
distant  one.     The  image  thrown  upon  the  retina  is  inverted. 

15.  The  eye  possesses  a  power  of   adjustment  for  dif- 
ferent distances,  chiefly  by  a  change  in  the  curvature  of  the 
crystalline  lens.      Two  objects  at  different  distances  from 
the  eye  cannot  be  clearly  defined  at  the  same  moment :  the 
adjustment  of  the  eye  for  seeing  one  distinctly  will  cause 
the  other  to  become  indistinct. 

16.  A  line  drawn  through  the  centre  of  the  cornea  and 
the  centre  of  the  whole  eye  is  called  the  axis  of  the  eye. 


10  On  the  Eye. 

17.  When  an  impression  of    light  is  made  upon   the 
retina  it  does  not  instantly  subside;  but  remains  for  a  short 
time  after  the  cause  has  passed  away.     This  is  called  the 
'persistence  of  impression.'     This  interval  of  persistence 
yaries  with  different  persons,  and  amounts  to  a  sensible 
fraction  of  a  second. 

18.  If  a  succession  of  images  follow  each  other  at  inter- 
vals less  than  the  time  which  the  impression  endures,  the 
images  will  blend  together  and  form  a  shady  surface,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  spokes  of  a  wheel  when  going  round  rapidly, 
or  the  colours  in  a  revolving  chromotrope. 

19.  The  image  of  any  object  thrown  on  the  retina  of 
one  eye  differs  from  that  thrown  on  the  retina  of  the  other, 
because  the  object  is  viewed  from  two  separate  places.     If 
these  two  pictures,   thrown  on  to  the  two   retinae,    were 
combined,  we  should  have  the  full  impression  of  solidity. 
This  is  what  takes  place  in  the  stereoscope,  in  which  the 
two  pictures  always  slightly  differ.     Both  eyes,  therefore, 
are  necessary  to  give  the  idea  of  solidity  and  space  satisfac- 
torily. 

20.  A  very  young  child  at  first  sees  things  not  as  they 
really  are,  but  as  they  appear  (on  the  exquisite  little  re- 
flector, the  eye),  unconscious  that  they  often  are  actually 
quite  different  from  what  they  appear.     As  the  child  grows, 
he  gradually  learns  the  true  or  actual  shapes  of  things, 
and  if,  whilst  very  young,  he  does  not  draw  things,  *  he 
will  lose  what  is  called  the  '  innocence  of  the  eye  ;'  so  that 

*  I  don't  say,  have  drawing  lessons.    See  Appendix  A,  on  children's 
drawing. 


On  the  Eye.  11 

when  he  is  older,  and  attempts  to  draw  things  from  nature, 
he  will  have  considerable  difficulty  in  seeing  retiring  forms 
correctly^  and  will  have  to  use  the  rules  of  perspective  :  thus 
to  learn  back  again,  as  it  were,  to  the  simplicity  and  truth 
of  child-sight. 

There  are  many  intelligent  persons  who  cannot  draw  the 
top  of  a  tumbler,  or  of  a  table  or  a  book,  correctly.  In  this 
case  the  mind  (with  its  knowledge  of  actual  shape)  inter- 
feres with  the  image  of  the  retina.*  It  is  a  fact  that, 
supposing  a  young  child  could  hold  and  guide  the  pencil 
sufficiently  well,  he  would  draw  solid  forms  in  perspective 
more  correctly  than  an  upgrown  person,  and  for  this  reason, 
that  he  sees  more  innocently  or  truly. 

21.  The  power  of  the  eye  for  judging, — distance,  for  ex- 
ample,— depends  on  frequent  and  earnest  practice.  A  sea- 
man, who  is  constantly  on  the  look-out,  judges  much  more 
accurately  of  distance  than  a  landsman.  When  two  boys  at 
play  have  their  marbles  almost  equally  near  a  given  hole, 
they  very  earnestly  take  the  image  into  their  eye,  first  of  one 
distance  and  then  of  the  other,  again  and  again,  till  at  last 
they  may  determine  with  almost  certainty  which  of  the  two 
marbles  is  nearest  the  hole.  The  image  on  the  retina  is 
true  enough  ;  the  difficulty  is  for  the  mind  to  take  a  correct 
*  reading '  of  the  image.  Aiming  at  a  given  mark,  as  in 
shooting,  or  cricket,  or  billiards,  tends  to  give  power  and 
accuracy  to  the  eye. 

*  Though  a  plumb-line  may  be  used  in  drawing,  it  is  really  seldom 
necessary,  as  the  eye,  if  fairly  practised,  will  soon  learn  to  determine 
whether  or  not  a  line  be  vertical  •. 


CHAPTER    III. 

ON  SEEING  AND  OBSEEVINO. 

22.  BY  careful  practice,  as  in  drawing,  the  eye  may  be- 
come astonishingly  accurate  as  a  measuring  instrument. 

Hitherto  the  eyes  have  been  spoken  of  as  a  single  organ, 
for,  although  we  often  use  both,  Art  recognises  only  one,  or, 
more  correctly,  one  point  of  vision. 

If  we  wish  to  see  clearly  the  contour  of  any  object,  es- 
pecially when  near,  only  one  eye  should  be  used,  so  as  to 
avoid  a  parallax  of  vision  ;  *  but  if  we  desire  to  determine 
how  far  an  object  is  from  us,  both  eyes  must  be  used,  so  as 
to  see,  as  it  were,  from  two  places,  for  with  one  eye  alone 
we  have  little  idea  of  space. 

An  illustration  of  this  parallax  of  vision  may  be  seen  in 
the  ordinary  stereoscope,  by  placing  in  it  two  views  exactly 
the  same  (i.  e.  taken  from  exactly  the  same  point).  No  idea 
of  space  will  be  given  beyond  what  we  see  without  the  in- 
strument. But  if  the  two  views  be  taken  from  two  different 
points,  corresponding  with  the  distance  of  the  eyes  from 
each  'other,  the  '  relief '  of  the  various  objects  will  be  per- 
fect, and  we  shall  have  a  full  idea  of  space. 

*  What  is  meant  by  parallax  of  vision  may  be  better  understood  in 
the  following  manner  : — Hold  a  pencil  or  pen  at  a  little  distance  from 
you,  and  look  at  it  with  one  eye  closed,  and  observe  what  object  or  part 
of  the  room  it  obscures  from  the  view  ;  now,  without  moving  the  head 
or  ]>cncil,  ojien  the  other  eye  and  close  the  one  just  used,  and  it  will  Ixj 
set  ii  that  the  pencil  now  screens  quite  a  different  part. 

12 


On  Seeing  and  Observing. 


13 


We  observe,  then,  that  to  see  the  contours  of  objects 
clearly  one  eye  only  should  be  used  ;  whilst  in  judging  of 
distance,  or  of  the  location  of  objects  in  space,  both  should 
be  used. 

23.  But  there  is  yet  another  way-  in  which  the  eyes 
should  be  used  in  Art,  viz.  half  closed. 

When  we  wish  to  observe  in  a  picture  or  drawing  the 
principal  masses  of  light  and  shade,  apart  from  detail,  the 
eyes  should  be  partially  closed,  so  as  to  admit  only  the 
bright  rays.  A  darkened  glass  is  sometimes  used  by  artists 
for  the  same  purpose. 

The  light  and  shade  of  a  picture  or  drawing  thus  seen 
is  often  spoken  of  in  Art  parlance  as 
the  'effect.'  In  Fig.  3  is  given  the 
'  effect,'  or  light  and  shade,  of  the  illus- 
tration forming  the  frontispiece  of  this 
work. 

24.  From  what  has  been  said  it  will 
be  evident  that,  although  the  eye  is  so 
wonderfully    adapted,    and    so    delicately 
sensitive    for    the     reception    of    images, 
it  requires  the    presence    of    a   mind  to 

v 

read  or  take  from  it  the  impression  it  presents  so  constantly. 
The  needle  on  the  telegraphic  dial  may  be  moving  ever 
so  rapidly,  but  to  little  purpose  if  there  be  na  intelli- 
gence ready  and  willing  to  receive  the  information  it  may 
be  presenting ;  and  this  leads  us  to  make  some  remarks  on 
the  importance  of  Observation. 

25.  The  power  of  observing  varies  much  in  different 


FIG.  3. 


14  On  Seeing  and  Observing. 

persons,  but  may  be  greatly  improved  by  intelligent  prac- 
tice. It  should  never  be  confined  to  one  class  of  objects. 
The  physical  world,  though  brimful  of  beauty  for  the 
eye,  and  of  evidences  of  wisdom  for  the  mind,  is  a  closed 
book  to  one  who  has  not  learnt  to  observe ;  but  to  one 
who  has  learned  to  see,  and  to  reflect  on  what  is  seen,  it 
is  literally  an  endless  source  of  enjoyment.  We  may, 
therefore,  naturally  inquire  what  part  of  a  liberal  curri- 
culum is  most  likely  to  be  of  service  to  us  in  forming  and 
developing  this  important  faculty  ?  Certainly,  whatever 
other  tangible  subjects,  such  as  chemistry  and  physics, 
may  do,  that  which  brings  us  into  immediate  contact  with 
Nature  and  with  Art  in  their  more  beautiful  aspects  must 
hold  an  important  place.  This  is  what  drawing,  rightly 
pursued,  does.  Let  us  suppose  a  simple  case.  In  our 
rambles  we  pick  up,  say,  a  leaf,  or  a  stone,  which  we  wish 
for  some  reason  to  remember.  A  verbal  description  alone 
would  be  both  tedious  and  unsatisfactory,  but  if  accom- 
panied with  a  drawing  of  it,  would  be  understood  distinctly 
and  remembered  long. 

20.  Collateral  knowledge  often  helps  observation,  and 
Art  should,,  be  studied  in  its  twofold  character,  as  a  science 
and  as  an  art — as  a  science  to  be  known,  and  as  an  art  to  be 
practised.  The  pleasure  we  take  in  any  objects,  whether  of 
God's  or  of  man's  making,  chiefly  depends  on  some  of 
the  following  considerations  :  1st,  that  by  what  they  pre- 
sent to  the  eye  they  suggest  to  the  mind  something  of 
deep  import,  as  in  symbolic  ornamentation  ;  or,  2nd,  that 
which  is  presented  to  the  eye  is  of  such  a  form  or  colour  as 


On  Seeing  and  Observing. 


15 


to  excite  our  sense  of  the  beautiful — this  is  aesthetic  or  sen- 
suous ;  or,  3rd,  the  formk  presented  to  us  may  be  such  as  to 
suggest  the  idea  of  fitness,  either  alone  or  in  conjunction 
with  the  sense  of  beauty. 


FIG.  4. 

27.  In  Fig.  4  (the  lotus-plant)  we  have  a  conventional 
and  unpretending  ornament,  which  by  itself  would  not  ex- 
cite much  emotion,  but  when  recognised  as  one  of  the  most 
significant  symbols  of  Egyptian  architecture  becomes  full  of 
interest. 


FIG.  5. 


Fig.  5  is  a  form  which,  apart  from  any  association,  is 
in  itself  pleasing,  as  is  also  the  piece  of   scroll-work    in 


16 


On  Seeing  and  Observing. 


Fig.  G.  But  the  charm  of  this  latter  is  greatly  enhanced 
because  applied  where  it  not  only  does  the  work  of  a  bracket 
(conveying  the  idea  of  fitness),  but  also  because  it  does  it 
with  much  grace. 


Pio.  0. 

It  is  in  thus  seeing  the  essential  characteristics  of  tilings 
that  real  observation  consists,  and  it  will  be  evident,  there- 
fore, how  important  it  is  that  the  mind  should  be  led  not 
only  to  see  beauty,  but  also  to  know  what  kind  of  beauty  it 
is,  and  whence  it  arises. 

28.  There  is  much  truth  in  the  remark  that  we  see 
only  that  which  we  look  for,  and  to  look  energetically  we 
must  consciously  look  for  something.  This  will  be  better 


On  Seeing  and  Observing.  17 

understood  by  the  following  anecdote,  which  Professor 
Tyndall  gives  of  Faraday.  'And  this  reminds  me,'  says 
Tyndall,  'of  an  occurrence  which  took  place  in  this  room 
at  the  beginning  of  my  acquaintance  with  Faraday.  I 
wished  to  show  him  a  peculiar  action  of  an  electro-mag- 
net upon  a  crystal.  Everything  was  arranged,  when,  just 
before  the  magnet  was  excited,  he  laid  his  hand  upon  my 
arm  and  asked,  "What  am  I  to  look  for?"  Amid  the 
assemblage  of  impressions  connected  with  an  experiment, 
even  this  prince  of  experimenters  felt  the  advantage  of 
having  his  attention  directed  to  the  special  point  to  be 
illustrated.'  * 

29.  Now,  the  difference  between  artistic  sight  and  or- 
dinary sight  arises  from  the  fact  that  people  generally  do 
not  look  for  those  truths  and  qualities  which  artists  look 
for.  For  instance,  a  group  of  intelligent  artisans — bot- 
anists— met  the  writer  in  one  of  the  most  beautiful  valleys 
in  Derbyshire,  and  in  a  conversation  admitted  that  they 
had  not  particularly  seen  the  rocks  or  the  hills,  nor  even 
the  trees — 'They  were  not  in  their  way.'  They  were 
searching  for  a  little  plant  they  had  heard  of  as  being  in 
that  locality. 

Thus,  men  use  their  eyes  as  channels  of  information 
about  what  they  want  to  know.  A  farmer  looks  at  the  sky 
to  see  whether  it  will  rain,  and  at  a  field  of  corn  with  a 
view  to  its  value.  A  drove  of  cattle  will  not  be  seen  by 
him  as  strikingly  picturesque,  but  as  objects  having  their 
market  value.  '  Money  value '  is  all  that  some  persons  can 
*  Tyndall,  On  Sound,  p.  120. 


18  On  Seeing  and  Observing. 

see  in  the  world.  With  them'the  aesthetic  sense  is  blind  or 
dead  :  they  have  eyes,  but  no  aesthetic  faculty  behind  them  ; 
they  are  like  the  man  who  had  bought  spectacles  to  read 
with,  but  still  could  not  read,  for  he  did  not  know  his 
letters. 

30.  It  is  an  optical  fact  that  no  two  persons  ever  saw 
the  same  rainbow,  and  it  is  equally  true  that  no  two  men 
ever  saw  the  same  appearance  in  any  object.     If  we  go  to 
a  sketching-ground  of  artists — say,  Bettws-y-Coed  or  Capel 
Curig — though  the  same  subject  may  be  painted  again  and 
again  by  successive  artists,  we  shall  not  find  two  pictures 
alike.     The  objects  may  have  been  the  same  precisely,  but 
in  each  case  the  representation  will  have  passed  through 
quite  a  different  mind,  with  quite  a  different  result. 

31.  Not  to  see  anything  is,  so  far  as  that  particular  thing 
is  concerned,  equivalent  to  blindness.     When  people  talk  of 
learning  to  draw  and  paint,  they  ought  rather  to  say  they 
are  learning  to  see,  for  that  is  the  main  object  of  artistic 
education  for  amateurs.     Artistic  sight  is  not  a  natural 
faculty,  but  may  be  acquired,  and  the  act  of  acquiring  it 
gradually  reveals  nature  to  us  aesthetically,  and  thus  de- 
velops this  new  sense,  which,  being  emotional,  supplies  pure 
food  for  the  imagination. 

Many  persons  would  be  indignant  at  being  told  that  they 
knew  little  about  the  form  of  an  ox  or  a  horse.  Let  any 
one  of  them,  however,  sit  down  quietly  and  write  such  a 
description  of  the  form  of  a  horse  that  we  may  know  it  in 
a  group.  Or,  if  he  find  this  too  tedious,  let  him  take  pen- 
cil and  paper,  and  try  seriously  to  draw  one — the  one  he 


On  Seeing  and  Observing.  19 

knows  so  well  and  rides  daily.      The  exercise  may  be  of 
value  to  him. 

32.  Hamerton  tells  us,  that  although  'accustomed  to 
country  life,  and  living  summer  and  winter  on  a  large  farm, 
he  never  knew  anything  accurately  about  horses  and  cows 
till  he  began  to  make  studies  of  them  with  a  view  to  paint- 
ing ;  and  postponed  the  writing  of  an  article  on  Rosa  Bon- 
heur  from  the  humiliating  conviction  that,  although  inti- 
mately familiar  with  all  the  oxen  on  the  farm,  and  their 
labours — personally  friendly  with  them,  even,  and  calling 
them  by  their  names — he  had  not,  in  the  deep,  critical,  and 
artistic  sense,  seen  them.' 

33.  Observations  are  of  little  value  without  comparison, 
and  for  comparison  we  must  have  standards  in  the  memory. 
It  is  recorded  of  Rosa  Bonheur,  that  when  she  first  began 
to  study  animals  she  bought  a  sheep,  and  kept  it  always  by 
her  in  a  Parisian  apartment,  and  studied  it  in  every  detail 
till  she  knew  it  by  heart ;  and  no  doubt  it  became  her  first 
standard.     The  haste  and  restlessness  of  the  present  age 
are  such  as  to  make  us  impatient  of  anything  but  the  gor- 
geous and  sensational.     We  should  seek  for  the  quieter, 
but  not  less  wholesome  and  enduring,  pleasure  of  ram- 
bling, sketch-book  in  hand,  through  some  of  our  old  Eng- 
lish scenery ;  for  the  true  art  of  seeing  and  enjoying  rests 
chiefly  in  sensitiveness  and  power  of  sympathy,   and  the 
true  value  of  observation  is  in  the  noble  thoughts '  that  it 
excites  within  us.     It  is  in  this  way  that  we  would  have 
students  cultivate  a  love  for  Nature  in  her  simplicity,  and  a 
habit  of  observing  accuratelv  her  subtle,  hidden  teachings. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


ON  HOLDING  THE  PENCIL. 

34.  THE  hand,  as  a  prehensile  or  handling  organ,  varies 
much  in  different  individuals.  In  some,  the  fingers  and 
thumb  are  long  and  mobile,  whilst  in  others  they  are  com- 
paratively short  and  stiff ;  but  practice  in  the  latter  case 
will  soon  surmount  almost  any  want  of  physical  adapta- 
tion. One  of  the  most  skilful  performers  on  the  pianoforte 
in  this  country  has  fingers  so  short  that  he  can  only  reach 
an  octave. 

Much,  however,  depends  on  the  way  in  which  the  pencil 
is  held  in  drawing.  Only  one  general  rule  can  be  given, 
and  it  is  this — that  it  should  be  held  in  that  position 
which  is  best  adapted  for  the  particular  work  to  be  done ; 
certainly  not  with  the  fingers  near  the  point,  or  with 


FIG.  7. 


FIG.  7  a. 


the  knuckles  up  as  when  writing,  thus  (Fig.  7),  but  rather 
as  in  Fig.  7  a.  Sometimes  the  pencil,  being  held  be- 
tween the  thumb  and  first  finger,  and  supported  by  the 

20 


On  Holding  the  Pencil. 


21 


long  one,  should  pass  along  the  first  finger  in  an  upward 
direction  ;  sometimes  it  should  pass  under  the  hand,  held 
also  by  the  other  fingers,  thus  (Fig.  7  b),  according  to  the 


FIG.  7  &. 

kind  of  work  to  be  done ;  and  in  all  cases  it  should,  as 
far  as  possible,  be  worked  from  the  shoulder,  especially 
when  drawing  at  an  easel. 

As  excellence  in  Art- work  greatly  depends  on  the  tools 
or  instruments  used,  the  sharpening  of  the  pencils  is  impor- 
tant. A  set  of  pencils  nicely  pointed  is  quite  a  temptation  to 


FIG.  7c. 


draw  with  delicacy  and  refinement.  They  should  never  be 
cut  like  the  first  two  in  Fig.  7  c,  but  like  the  third  one,  or 
even  with  a  still  finer  point,  except  where  it  is  intended  to 


22 


On  Holding  the  Pencil. 


shade  broadly  with  the  side  of  the  instrument — then  the 
wood  should  be  left  uncut  on  one  side,  so  as  to  support  the 
lead  and  prevent  it  from  breaking.  After  the  cedar  is 
cleared  away  a  small  file  may  be  used,  or  one  fixed  in  a  box, 
as  in  Eig.  7  d. 


FIG.  7  d. 


CHAPTER    V. 

ON  LINES. 

35.  BY  a  line  is  not  here  meant  the  abstract  idea  of 
length  without  breadth  or    thickness,    but  an  elongated 
mark  or  stroke  made  by  some  instrument  on  a  plane  or 
surface. 

36.  There  are  only  two  kinds  of  lines,   straight  and 
curved,  and  by  means  of  these  all  the  infinitely  varied  and 
beautiful  forms  in  creation  may  be  indicated.     If  you  look 
round  the  room,  you  will  not  find  any  object  or  pattern  that 
may  not  be  described  by  these  lines. 

37.  A  straight  line  may  be  defined  as  a  point  continued 
in  one  direction,  or  as  the  nearest  defined  distance  between 
any  two  points.  • 

Although  there  are  really  no  lines  in  nature,  we  find  the 
idea  of  the  straight  line  in  crystals,  buildings,  and  in  many 
things  made  by  man,  in  which  utility  is  the  chief  purpose  ; 
because  generally  it  is  easier  to  fit  two  plain  or  straight  sur- 
faces than  two  which  are  curved  or  irregular,  as,  for  in- 
stance, in  a  box,  or  in  bricks. 

38.  A  curved  line  is  one  in  which  the  direction  is  con- 
stantly varied.     It  is  found  chiefly,  but  not  altogether,  in 
things  that  are  considered  beautiful,  as  in  leaves,  flowers, 
the  human  form,  &c. 

39.  There  is  beauty,  however,  in  crystals,  and  even  in 
the  square  ;  but  the  beauty  of  the  square  arises  partly  from 

23 


24 


On  Lines. 


a  sense  of  exactness,  for  if  it  be  not  exact  it  ceases  at  once  to 
give  pleasure  and  to  be  a  square. 

40.  Both  straight  and  curved  lines  are  felt  to  be  most 
beautiful  when  in  combination,  as  in  some  kinds  of  archi- 
tecture, vases,  flowers,  and  trees. 

41.  When  forms  are  made  with  the  straight  line  only 
(as  in  Fig.  8)  they  are  called  rectilinear  ;  when  made  with 


PIG.  8. 


Fio.  9. 


Fio.  10. 


curved  lines  (as  in  Fig.  9)  they  are  called  curvilinear  ;  and 
when  composed  of  both  straight  and  curved  lines  they  are 
compound  forms  (as  in  Fig.  10). 

42.  A  straight  line  can  be  placed  only  in  three  posi- 
tions, viz.  perpendicular,  horizontal,  and  oblique  or  slant- 
ing. The  perpendicular  and  horizontal  positions  never 
vary,  and  may  therefore  be  considered  and  used  as  standard 
lines.  Oblique  or  slanting  lines  may  incline  more  or  less, 
and  the  degree  of  inclination  can  only  be  estimated  by 
comparing  them  with  either  perpendicular  or  horizontal 
lines. 


On  Lines.  25 

43.  In   copying   an   example  or  a  model,  therefore,  it 
is  evidently  absurd  to  begin  with  slanting  lines  :  all  the 
standard  lines  should  be  first  drawn,  and  the  slanting  ones 
judged  of  by  them.     The  importance  of  constantly  testing 
all  lines  by  those  which  are  either  perpendicular  or  horizon- 
tal can  scarcely  be  too  strongly  insisted  on,  as  there  are  no 
other  means,  in  free-hand  drawing,  of  attaining  accuracy. 
(See,  also,  1 105.) 

44.  By  means  of  these  two  elemental  lines  all  superficies 
and  all  solid  forms  may  be  suggested.      If  we  continue  a 
line  at  an  equal  distance  from  a  point  it  will  result  in  a 
circle,  which  is  the  archetype  of  all  animal  and  vegetable 
forms, — the  simplest  and  most  economical  form  in  creation, 
and  perfect  in  its  completeness.     It  is,  however,  an  unity 
admitting  no  variety,  and  therefore  has  not  in  it  the  ele- 
ment of  infinity,  which  consists  in  variety  rather  than  in 
numbers.     The  square  may  be  considered  as  the  archetype 
of  crystals  and  of  constructed  forms,  such  as  buildings. 
The  highest  piece  of  future  architecture — the  New  Jerusa- 
lem— is  described  as  being  ' four  square.'     This  figure,  how- 
ever, like  the  circle,  being  fixed — admitting  of  no  change — 
cannot  be  considered  beautiful  per  se,  but  only  in  its  appli- 
cation as  to  structure,  and  as  a  contrast  to  the  curve.     The 
most  beautiful  and  the  highest  forms  in  Nature  and  in  Art 
are  made  up  of  a  combination  of  these  two  forms  modified 
by  elongation,  and  by  the  admixture  of  one  with  the  other. 
This  combination  of  the  straight  with  the  curve  is  found  in 
its  highest  development  in  the  human  form. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

ON  OUTLINE. 


45.  OUTLINE  may  be  understood  to  be  the  mere  contour 
of  any  form  (as  Fig.  11).     It  may  also  mean  a  sketch  with 


FIG.  11. 

lines   to  indicate  its  general  and  leading  characteristics, 
thus : — 


FIG.  12. 


FIG.  13. 


Some  objects  may  be  clearly  indicated  by  outline  alone, 

26 


On  Outline. 


27 


as  leaves,  &c.  ;  whilst  others  cannot  be  satisfactorily  ex- 
pressed without  shade — the  sphere,  for  instance. 

46.  A  flat  contour  may  be  greatly  modified  by  a  few  in- 
dicative lines  or  markings  on  its  sur- 
face ;  for  example,  Figs.  15,  16,  17 
are  the  same  in  contour  as  Fig.  14, 
but  their  character  is  greatly  modified 
by  the  different  markings. 


FIG.  14. 


FIG.  15. 


FIG.  16. 


FIG.  17. 


Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  outline  is  most  important, 
and  often  very  effective,  as  it  suggests  to  the  mind  an  idea 
of  many  things  which  it  would  require  long  time  and  much 
thought  and  labour  fully  to  describe.  (See  page  6,  order- 
ing a  box.) 

47.  In  drawing  a  Head,  the  first  twenty  lines  will  indi- 
cate more  than  a  hundred  lines  can  do  afterwards ;  for  the 
former  will  give  the  principal  facts  of  eyes,  nose,  mouth, 
&c.,  whilst  the  latter  can  only  add  lesser  facts. 

It  is  scarcely  possible  to  overrate  the  importance  of  cor- 
rect form  as  indicated  by  outline,  inasmuch  as  no  amount 
of  shading  will  make  a  wrong  sketch  right. 

48.  The  first  efforts  at  Art  with  primitive  man  have 
always  been  in  outline,  just  as  we  find  in  children's  work. 
The  aim  is  to  get  at  the  fact  which  the  mind  recognises, 


28  On  Outline. 


rather  than  the  appearance  on  the  retina  of  the  eye — to  get 
the  fact  clearly  stated  without  much  regard  to  the  means — 
and  it  is  in  this  sense  that  drawing  in  its  earliest  employ- 
ment was  a  kind  of  writing.  The  Greeks  used  the  same 
word  for  writing  and  drawing,  and  there  is  little  doubt  they 
considered  the  processes  the  same.  All  the  arts  of  design 
or  drawing  in  their  early  development  are  essentially  con- 
ventional, inasmuch  as  they  are  produced  by  lines,  and 
there  are  no  lines  in  nature.  There  does  not  appear  to  be 
any  evidence  to  show  that  the  earlier  nations,  such  as  the 
Babylonians,  Assyrians,  or  Egyptians,  had  any  knowledge 
of  the  fuller  expression  of  form  by  means  of  the  gradation 
of  shade.  We  find  them  outlining  their  forms,  and  almost 
invariably  in  profile ;  then  filling  up  the  forms  with  flat 
tints  of  colour.  Thus,  until  the  time  of  the  Greeks,  the 
whole  civilised  world  seems  to  have  been  satisfied  with  the 
impression  of  form  only  by  outlines  and  flat  tints. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

ON  SKETCHING. 

49.  THE  first  great  mistake  which  young  students  in 
Art  make,  is  in  not  taking  sufficient  time  to  place  accu- 
rately the  points  which  determine  the  principal  parts  of  a 
drawing.  Suppose  a  man  were  about  to  build  a  house,  the 
first  thing  he  would  do  would  be  to  plot  out  the  ground- 
plan  most  carefully  and  accurately  ;  otherwise  all  his  house 
would  be  wrong.  And  when  building,  he  would  first  secure 
the  corners,  testing  them  with  the  plumb-line  and  square 
before  proceeding  with  the  walls.  So,  in  drawing,  very 
much  time,  and  error,  and  rubber,  and  patience,  would  be 
saved  if  young  persons  would  only  be  persuaded  to  be  suf- 
ficiently careful  in  plotting  out,  or  fixing  accurately,  the 
chief  lines  and  points  in  a  drawing. 

This  can  only  be  done  by  a  constant  use  of  right  angles, 
real  or  imaginary,  and  by  what  is  known  as  'blocking  in.' 
If  the  work  to  be  copied  be  of  the  nature  of  scrolls  (as  in 
Fig.  5)  or  of  leaves  (as  in  Fig.  40),  then  straight  lines 
should  be  used  in  every  available  part.  This  is  shown  by 
the  lines,  «,  a,  &c.  (Fig.  18).  This  plan  of  using  right 
angles,  and  of  '  blocking  in,'  is  very  useful  when  drawing 
from  casts,  as  well  as  from  the  flat. 

Ordinarily  it  is  best  to  commence  near  the  middle  of  the 
drawing,  with  some  leading  line  or  object,  and  then  to  work 

to  the  right  and  left.     The  exact  centre  of  a  picture  is 

29 


30 


On  Sketching. 


a,         \a,      a. 
Fia.  18. 


FIG.  19. 


On  Sketching.  31 


readily  found  by  drawing  diagonal  lines  from  corner  to 
corner  of  the  paper,  as  in  Fig.  19. 

50.  If  it  should  happen  that  there  are  no  important  lines 
near  the  centre  of  the  drawing,  as  in  the  woodcut  (Fig.  20), 
then  the  principal  horizontal  lines  should  first  be  drawn, 
and  the  chief    objects  sketched  in   upon    them.      Never 
until  the  work  is  accurately  laid  in  should  the  details  be 
added. 

Fig.  21  affords  an  example  of  forms  which  it  would 
be  almost  impossible  to  reproduce  accurately  without  the 
aid  of  perpendicular  lines,  by  which  to  judge  of  the 
various  curved  and  inclined  lines,  both  of  figure  and 
drapery. 

51.  In  drawing  the  human  figure,  it  is  always  better  to 
use  as  much  as  possible  straight  lines,  as  at  a  in  Fig.  22, 
and  never  dotted  lines  as  at  b.     It  is  only  by  the  juxtaposi- 
tion of  a  straight  line  that  we  can  fully  and  accurately 
judge  of  the  value  of  a  curved  one. 

52.  When  the  subject  to  be  sketched  has  a  clear  and 
keenly  defined  contour,  the  lines  used  should  be  drawn 
cleanly  and  firmly  at  once,  as  in  the  various  perspective 
figures  in  this  work ;  but  when  such  objects  as  tree-stems, 
rustic  figures,  &c.,  have  to  be  sketched,  then,  instead  of  a 
cold  single  line,  several  approximate  lines  may  be  used  (as 
in  Fig.  23,  a),  but  never  dotted  lines  (as  at  5). 

Objects  composed  of  curves,  such  as  Gothic  windows, 
arches,  &c.  (Fig.  24),  may  be  readily  drawn  by  first  setting 
up  a  framework  of  straight  lines,  by  which  to  determine  the 
degrees  of  curvature. 


On  Sketching. 


33 


FIG.  21. 

Showing  the  value  of  contrasting  straight  lines  with 
curved  ones. 


3 


34 


On  Sketching. 


V 


^.-X 

( 


Fio.  22. 


Faces  should  be  drawn  with  straight  lines,  as  at  a;  never 
with  dotted  ones,  as  at  b. 


On  Sketching. 


35 


FIG.  23. 


Tree-stems,  especially  when  rough,  may  be  sketched  with 
several  lines,  as  at  a,  but  never  with  dotted  ones,  as  at  b. 


36 


On  Sketching. 


53.  The  reason  why  in  some  cases  a  single  line  should 
be  used,  and  in  other  cases  several  lines,  is,  that  the  eye 
inevitably  follows  a  single  and  rigid  line  ;  but  where  there 
are  several  lines,  the  eye  rests  on  the  surface  included  by 
them,  as  it  does  in  nature ;  the  form  is  understood,  and 
some  idea  is  obtained  of  the  texture  and  character  of  the 
surface. 


-J 


FIG.  24. 


54.  Any  mechanical  aids  that  may  have  been  used  in 
obtaining  an  accurate  form  should  be  cleanly  removed  be- 
fore any  shading  is  added,  and  the  sketch  or  outline  itself 
should  bo  reduced  to  such  faintncss  as  not  to  interfere  or 
obtrude  itself  in  the  completing  of  the  work. 

55.  Although  these  remarks  have  reference  principally 
to  sketching  from  flat  copies,  they  apply  also  to  drawing 
from  the  round,  and  from  Nature. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

ON  LIGHT  AND  SHADE. 

56.  (  LIGHT  AND  SHADE  '  in  Art  should  be  considered  as 
the  means  of  modelling  the  surface  confined  by  contour  ; 
for  outline  is  to  contour  what  *  light  and  shade '  is  to  surface 
— the  outline  leaves  an  object  superficial,  the  Might  and 
shade '  makes  it  solid ;  and  roundness  and  projection  are 
the  natural  outcome  of   'light  and  shade,'  which  takes 
away  the  appearance  of  flatness  of  the  surface  on  which 
the  drawing  is  made.     It  is  nevertheless  true  that  this 
modelling  of  a  surface  may  be  strongly  indicated  by  lines 
only,  but  never  fully  expressed  without  '  light  and  shade  ; ' 
and  in  nature  we  are  largely  dependent  on  the  same  means 
for  our  knowledge  of  the  projection  of  one  thing  from 
another,  as,  for  instance,  of  the  nose  from  the  face,  or  of 
the  forehead  over  the  eyes.     We  become  conscious  of  tbe 
wrinkles  or  creases  in  a  face  or  on  a  piece  of  paper  only 
as  they  may  be  revealed  by  the  light  and  shade  that  is  on 
them. 

57.  Before  treating  of  light  and  shade  as  applied  to  Art, 
it  may  be  desirable  to  state  a  few  facts  with  reference  to 
light  and  its  action  on  bodies  in  various  circumstances. 

58.  Light  is  defined  as  an  imponderable  agent  which 
makes  objects  perceptible  to  the  sense  of  sight,  but  the  par- 
ticles of  which  are  separately  invisible.     Thus,  although  we 

37 


38  On  Light  and  Shade. 

see  things  by  means  of  light,  we  cannot  see  the  light  itself. 
If  an  object  be  placed  before  the  eyes,  and  there  be  no  light, 
it  is  of  course  invisible ;  but  if  a  ray,  or  a  number  of  rays  of 
light,  fall  upon  the  object,  they  are  instantly  broken  by  it, 
and  partly  absorbed  and  partly  reflected  in  all  directions. 
Some  of  these  reflected  portions  entering  the  eye  reveal 
to  us  the  object,  or,  in  other  words,  we  can  then  see  it. 
Whether  the  object  is  very  light  or  dark  will  depend  upon 
its  nature,  and  the  number  of  rays  which  it  absorbs  into 
itself,  or  which  it  reflects  into  the  eye.  Some  objects  have 
the  power  of  absorbing  many  and  reflecting  few  rays,  as  will 
be  shortly  seen. 

59.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  in  drawing 
and  painting,  our  highest  light,  which  is  white  paper 
or  white  paint,  is  very  much  darker  (less  light)  than 
white  light,  as  may  be  seen  by  holding  a  piece  of  whitest 
paper  in  juxtaposition  with  the  blue  sky,  or  even  a  grey 
cloud ;  and  this  is  one  reason  why  in  Art  we  cannot  com- 
pete with  either  the  tender  gradations  or  the  scope  or 
range  of  Nature,  from  her  highest  light  to  her  deepest 
dark. 

GO.  When  any  part  or  plane  of  an  object  is  so  placed 
that  an  equal  number  of  rays  are  thrown  from  each  part  of 
that  plane  into  the  eye,  it  will  appear  equally  light;  but 
when  the  object  is  so  placed  as  to  reflect  fewer  rays  from 
one  part  than  from  another,  there  is  gradation  of  light  into 
shade  ;  and  although  shade  may  be  generally  defined  as 
absence  of  light,  yet,  as  there  are  degrees  of  light,  so  there 
are  degrees  of  shade. 


On  Light  and  Shade. 


39 


This  will  be  better  understood  by  reference  to  Fig.  25. 
Let  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  represent  equal  spaces  or  planes  on  any  ob- 
ject. Illumined  from  *,  it  is  evident  that  as  more  rays  fall 
on  a  b  than  on  b  c,  this  latter  plane,  b  c,  will  be  less  light 


than  a  b.  Further,  as  c  d  receives  scarcely  any  rays  it  will 
appear  very  dark,  and  d  e,  receiving  none,  will  be  invisible 
or  black. 

61.  An  object  may  be  actually  very  light  or  very  dark, 
but  it  will  only  appear  so  to  the  spectator  in  proportion 
to  the  number  and  intensity  of  the  rays  received  on  the 
retina.  The  quantity  of  rays  that  could  be  reflected  into 
the  eye  from  these  various  planes  is  indicated  on  the 
vertical  line,  o  p.  It  will  be  seen  that  as  c  d  receives 
no  direct  rays  from  *,  it  can  throw  into  the  eye  only  such 
rays  as  it  may  happen  to  receive  from  surrounding  ob- 
jects. 

The  illuminating  of  objects  may  be  further  illustrated 


40 


On  LigJit  and  SJiade. 


by  the  diagram  below  (Fig.  26),  where  the  lines,  a  a  a, 
represent  rays  of  light,  and  A  B  and  c,  planes  intercepting 
those  rays.  It  will  be  apparent  that  as  the  plane,  c,  inter- 
cepts all  the  rays,  it  will  be  lightest ;  but  as  B  is  placed 
obliquely  to  the  rays,  it  cannot  be  so  light ;  whilst  A,  being 
in  the  direction  of  the  line  of  rays,  must  necessarily  be 
quite  dark. 


FIG.  26. 

62.  But  there  is  another  fact  which  must  here  be  ob- 
served. When  objects  are  not  illumined  from  one  point  or 
focus  alone,  as  the  sun,  but  from  surrounding  objects,  also, 
and  from  the  particles  of  atmosphere,  that  secondary  illu- 
mination is  called  reflection,  and  thus  much  visible  shade 
is,  in  fact,  but  reflected  light. 

The  atmosphere  is  seldom  pure ;  even  our  bluest  skies 
are  said  to  be  composed  of  infinitesimally  small  particles  of 
matter,  by  which  the  rays  of  pure  white  light  are  broken. 


On  Light  and -Shade.  41 

Clouds  formed  of  particles  of  vapour  break  and  scatter  the 
rays  in  all  directions. 

63.  In  some  respects  shade  and  shadow  are  one  and  the 
same ;  for  instance,  they  may  both  be  defined  as  darkness, 
or  absence  of  light,  and  they  generally  convey  the  idea  of 
evenness  —  of    an    equal    and    unbroken   tone    of    colour. 
Moreover,  they  both,  however  light  or  dark,  have  a  degree 
of  depth,  transparency,  and  repose,  which   in  Art  should 
always  be  expressed. 

As  a  matter  of  convenience  in  the  practice  of  Art,  and 
arising  in  part  from  its  nature,  it  is  desirable  to  divide  this 
darkness,  which  we  now  speak  of  as  shade,  into  shade,  which 
is  natural,  and  shadow,  which  is  accidental. 

64.  All  opaque  objects  receiving  the  light  have  some 
portion  of  their  surface  turned  more  or  less  away  from  the 
light,   and   have    therefore    an 

inseparable  darkness.  This  is 
termed  natural  shade.  But 
when  the  darkness  is  caused 
by  an  object  intervening  be- 
tween the  light  and  some  other 
object  it  is  called  accidental 
shadow.  For  instance,  in  Fig.  jnIG<  37< 

27  you  will  see  the  accidental 

shadow  of  the  hoop  on  the  jar.  This  would  of  course  be 
moved  on  removing  the  hoop,  whilst  the  shade  natural  to 
the  jar  would  remain. 

65.  There  is  another  term  used  in  connexion  with  this 
subject  which  is  very  important,  and  but  for  which  all 


42  On  Light  and  Shade. 

shades  and  shadows  would  be  absolutely  black  :  it  is  Reflec- 
tion, which  has  been  already  referred  to  above. 

By  Reflection,  then,  is  meant  simply  light  thrown  back 
from  one  object  on  to  another. 

The  strength  of  Reflection  varies  greatly,  according 
to  circumstances,  but  in  some  degree  it  is  almost  always 
present. 

White  and  polished  surfaces  reflect  the  most,  whilst 
dark  and  opaque  ones,  such  as  black  cloth,  &c.,  throw  back 
but  little  light.  Even  particles  of  matter  floating  in  the 
atmosphere  receive  and  throw  off  rays,  and  by  these  rays 
from  all  sides  the  parts  of  objects  turned  away  from  direct 
illumination  are  rendered  visible. 

As  rays  of  light  from  illuminated  surfaces  are  thrown 
off  in  straight  lines  iu  all  directions,  whether  as  direct  or 
reflected  rays,  the  position  and  proximity  of  objects  to 
each  other  is  very  important  in  Art. 

Generally,  the  greater  the  light  is  the  stronger  the  reflec- 
tions are,  and,  consequently,  all  shades  affected  by  these 
reflections  will  be  lighter. 

This  is  a  very  important  truth,  and  is  so  often  lost 
sight  of  by  young  students  that  a  few  words  of  further 
explanation  may  not  be  out  of  place,  and  as  no  knowl- 
edge is  better  retained  than  that  which  is  experimen- 
tal, the  student  may  gain  experience  in  the  following 
manner. 

66.  Get  several  pieces  of  white  cardboard,  say  six  or 
eight  inches  long,  and  as  many  inches  wide,  and  cut  them 
half  through,  so  that  they  will  fold  and  stand  upright 


On  Light  and  Shade. 


43 


(something  like  Figs.  28  and  29),  and  let  one  of  them  so 
stand  on  any  white  surface,  as  a  sheet  of  white  paper,  and  if 
possible  in  sunlight.  Let  another  be  placed  in  like  man- 
ner on  a  dark  surface,  as  a  dark  table-cover.  Now  make 
a  comparison  of  the  two,  and  it  will  be  found  that  in  the 
first  case  (Fig.  28)  the  lower  part  of  the  shaded  side  is  much 
lighter  than  the  upper  part,  because  many  of  the  rays  of 
light  from  the  white  paper  are  thrown  back  or  reflected 


R 


FIG.  28. 


FIG.  29.- 


against  it ;  whilst  in  the  other  case  (Fig.  29)  little  or  no 
perceptible  change  takes  place,  because  the  dark  cloth, 
instead  of  reflecting  the  light,  absorbs  it.  Except  for  re- 
flection, the  shade  side  of  objects  would  inevitably  be  black 
— in  fact,  invisible. 

67.  If  the  student  will  now  make  the  experiment  with 
coloured  surfaces,  he  will  learn  more  fully  the  universality 
of  these  laws.  Let  Y  (Fig.  28)  represent  the  cardboard 
coloured,  say  Yellow,  and  E,  the  surface  on  which  it  stands, 


44  On  Light  and  Shade. 

coloured  Red,  and  as  before  let  it  be  placed  in  sunlight. 
It  will  be  observed  that  the  lower  part  of  the  shaded  side,  Y, 
is  now  of  an  Orange  hue,  because  some  of  the  Bed  is  thrown 
back  or  reflected  into  the  Yellow. 

If,  as  in  Fig.  29,  the  cardboard  is  coloured  Blue,  and 
the  surface  on  which  it  stands  Red,  then  the  lower  part 
of  B  will  appear  of  a  Purple  hue  :  and  so  on,  according 
to  the  colours  and  the  nature  of  the  material  used,  ad 
infinitum.  * 

G8.  It  has  been  observed  that  substances  vary  greatly  in 
their  power  of  reflection.  When  rays  of  light  fall  upon 
an  object,  some  of  them  are  absorbed  by  the  object,  and  the 
remainder  are  reflected  in  all  directions.!  It  is  these  re- 
flected rays  thrown  on  the  retina  that  enable  us  to  see 
objects.  This  absorption  of  light  takes  place  in  all  bodies 
more  or  less,  and  even  water,  when  very  deep,  will  almost 
completely  absorb  rays  of  light  in  certain  degrees  of  inci- 
dence, and  appear  black.  The  difference  between  the  high- 
est known  transparency  and  the  deepest  opacity  (say,  pitch 
or  tar)  is  one  of  degree  merely. 

*  The  laws  of  reflection  of  colour,  here  referred  to,  apply  only  to 
pigments,  and  not  to  pure  light,  where  some  singular  phenomena  present 
themselves.  For  instance,  Helmholtz  has  shown  that  Yellow  and  Blue 
rays  thrown  together  into  each  other  produce  White  light.  In  painting, 
however,  we  mix  Blue  and  Yellow  substances  to  produce  Green. 

f  At  a  perpendicular  incidence  water  reflects  only  18  rays  out  of 
every  1000.  When  the  rays  strike  the  water  obliquely,  the  reflection  is 
increased.  At  an  incidence  of  40°,  for  example,  water  reflects  22  rays  ; 
at  00"  it  reflects  05  rays  ;  at  80  ,  333  rays  ;  while  at  an  angle  of  89^, 
where  the  light  almost  grazes  the  surface,  it  reflects  721  rays  out  of 
every  1000.—  Vide  Tyndall  on  Light,  2nd  cd.  p.  17. 


46 


On  Light  and  Shade. 


It  will  be  evident,  then,  that  if  in  Nature  these  laws 
are  invariable  and  ever  present,  we  can  only  hope  for  suc- 
cess in  our  efforts  in  proportion  as  we  express  them  in  our 
work. 

G9.  We  have  said  that  when  an  object  is  interposed 


Ex.2. 


,"•  -••—V  III 

•&?.*'••' 'jtfx,  K 

I -H— 4.  'M&&-'' 

"v  *«,  V*f«t  I'jff^. 


between  the  light  and  another  object,  the  darkness  so 
caused  is  called  accidental  shadow  (see  If  64).  Shadow) 
does  not  usually  reveal  so  much  the  shape  of  the  object 
casting  it  as  the  shape  of  the  surface  on  which  if  falls,  as 
may  bo  seen  in  Fig.  30,  where  the  straight  stick  casts  an 


On  Light  and  Shade. 


47 


irregular  shadow,  according  to  the  shape  of  the  surface. 
Also,  in  the  doorways  (Fig.  31),  the  framework  of  both  is 
the  same  in  appearance,  until,  as  in  Ex.  1,  a  shadow  is 
cast  which  at  once  reveals  to  us  the  depth  or  retirement 
of  some  portions  of  the  mouldings.  Usually  the  darkest 
part  of  a  cast  shadow  is  close  to  the  object  casting  it. 
Fig.  31  a  shows  in  a  simple  manner  how  the  compara- 
tively flat  shade  and  shadow,  #,  may  be  made  into  a 
retiring  space  by  the  addition  of  a  few  accessories,  as  in  J. 
Not  onlv  does  a  cast  shadow  reveal  the  surface  over  which 


FIG.  32. 

it  passes,  but  it  is  usually  well  defined  at  the  edges,  as 
well  as  darkest  immediately  next  to  the  object  casting  it. 
Evidence  of  this  may  be  seen  in  the  wooden  platter  and 
knife  (Fig.  32).  Sometimes,  however,  when  the  object 
casting  the  shadow  stands  away  from  the  surface  on 
which  the  shadow  falls,  the  edge  of  the  shadow  is  darkest, 
as  at  a  in  Fig.  33,  where  the  shadow  at  a  a  is  darkest  at 
the  bottom. 

70.   Shadows   are   ordinarily  darker   than   shades,  espe- 
cially in  sunlight  and  under  a  clear  sky,  and  for  this  reason  : 


48 


On  LigJit  and  Shad j. 


— Light  passes  through  pure  air  invisibly  ;  *  but  if  there  bo 
particles,  as  of  dust,  or  of  water  in  suspension  (cloud  or 
vapour),  these  particles,  receiving  the  rays,  scatter  them  in 
all  directions,  and  some  falling  on  the  shadow  prevent  it 
from  being  absolutely  black. 


FIG.  33. 

71.  When,  however,  the  light  is  not  bright,  and  there 
are  clouds  breaking  up  and  scattering  the  rays  they  have 
not  absorbed,  the  shaded  parts  of  objects  will  be  dull,  and 
the  shadow  from  them  undefined. 

*  This  may  be  readily  shown  thus  : — In  a  room  totally  dark,  bore 
a  small  hole  in  the  shutter,  so  as  to  let  in  light  from  the  sun.  The 
beam  of  light  will  be  invisible.  Now  cause  a  little  dust,  or  smoke,  or 
vapour  from  a  kettle,  to  rise,  and  the  beam  of  light  will  instantly  be- 
come visible. 


On  Light  and  Shade. 


49 


When  the  local  colour  of  the  objects  is  dark,  and  unrc- 
flective  or  absorbent  of  rays,  these  laws  are  not  so  apparent, 
and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  white  or  light  models  are  the 
best  for  students  to  work  from. 

72.  The  attention  should  now  be  drawn  to  another 
very  important  property  of  shade — its  gradation  on  round 


FIG.  34. 

objects.  "We  have  already  said  that  in  all  cases  shade 
should  be  perfectly  even  and  free  from  spottiness.  This 
fact  applies  to  shade  under  all  circumstances,  on  round  as 
on  flat  surfaces.  The  simplest  form  on  which  gradation 
can  be  seen  is  on  a  cylinder,  such  as  the  pillar  (Fig.  34),  or 
on  a  roll  of  white  paper,  where  the  gradation  is  in  one  di- 
rection only.  If  you  have  a  sphere,  such  as  an  india-rubber 


50  On  Light  and  Shade. 

ball,  you  will  sec  that  the  shade  graduates  in  all  directions, 
but  regularly ;  whilst  on  an  egg,  or  on  the  parts  of  a  face, 
the  gradation  is  much  more  complex. 

The  great  aim  in  the  working  of  graduated  shade,  how- 
ever, should  be  to  keep  it  not  only  even,  but  tender,  for  all 
fine  work  is  delicate,  and  it  is  better  to  sacrifice  some  of  the 
roundness  of  appearance  than  the  delicacy  of  work.  The 
shade  on  an  egg  is  actually  inimitable.  The  shading  on  the 
pedestal  in  Fig.  34  must  not  on  any  account  be  taken  as  an 
example — it  is  quite  too  imperfect. 

73.  There  is  one  more  property  in  the  use  of  cast 
shadows  which  may  be  briefly  noted,  namely,  that  they  tell 
us  the  direction  from  which  the  light  comes,  and  often  the 
location  of  the  object  which  casts  the  shadow.     It  is  evi- 
dent, for  instance,  that  in  Fig.  34  the  light  falls  from  the 
left-hand  side,  because  the  shadow  on  the  ground  from  the 
pillar  is  on  the  right-hand  side.     If  the  shadow  from  an 
object  assumes  the  shape  of  a  cone,  we  infer  that  the  illu- 
mining body  is  wide  in  proportion ;   but  if  the  shadow 
diverges  as  it  leaves  the  object,  we  conclude  that  the  light 
is  small  in  proportion — as  it  might  be  of  a  candle. 

74.  The  student  may  illustrate  this  for  himself  in  the 
following  experimental  manner,  by  means  of  a  bat's-wing 
flame,  or  by  a  flat  paraffine  flame.    Let  any  object  narrower 
than  the  width  of  the  fiat  side  of  the  flame  be  placed  so  as 
to  cast  a  shadow  on  to  a  piece  of  paper  on  the  table  ;  it  will 
be  seen  that  it  assumes  the  shape  of  a  cone,  and  that  its 
edge  is  somewhat  softened.     When  the  edge  of  the  flame  is 
turned  towards  the  object,  the  shadow  is  sharp  and  clear, 


On  Light  and  Shade.  51 

and  if  the  object  be  wider  than  the  flame,  the  shadow  will 
form  a  divergent  cone. 

75.  In  most  of  the  illustrations  given  it  will  be  observed 
that  the  shadow  touches  the  object  that  casts  it,  and  thus 
indicates  that  it  is  on  the  ground.  In  the  two  following 
illustrations  (Figs.  35  and  36)  the  two  pairs  of  feet  are 


FIG.  35.  FIG.  36. 

precisely  the  same,  but  by  the  shadows  which  they  cast 
they  are  made  to  appear  different. 

76.  Although  there  are  no  lines  in  Nature,  it  is  often 
necessary  to  use   them   in   expressing  shade  in  drawing. 
These  lines,  however,  should  always  be  used  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  surface  they  are  intended  to  express  :  never  as 
in  Fig.  37,  but  as  in  Fig.  38  ;  or  even  better,  Fig.  39. 

SUMMAEY. 

77.  This  chapter  on  Light  and  Shade  is  so  important 
that  it  may  be  desirable  to  give  a  summary  of  it. 

78.  Solidity,  roundness,  and  projection,  are  the  natural 
outcome  of  light  and  shade,  and  we  are  greatly  dependent 
on  it  for  our  knowledge  of  projection. 

79.  Light  is  an  imponderable,  invisible  agent  by  which 
we  see  objects. 


52 


On  LigTit  and,  Shade. 


80.  Light  is  in  itself  invisible,  but  becomes  visible  as 
it  impinges  on  anything. 


FIG.  37. 


Fio.  39. 

81.  We  see  objects  by  means  of  the  rays  of  light  which 
are  reflected  from  them  into  the  eye. 


On  Light  and  Shade.  53 

82.  Objects  are  light  or  dark  in    proportion  as  they 
absorb  many  or  few  rays,  and  they  appear  light  or  dark 
according  to  the  number  of  rays  they  reflect  into  the  eye. 

83.  Few  objects  appear  quite  black  on  their  shaded  side, 
owing  to  light  being  thrown  upon  them  from  surrounding 
objects  or  from  the  atmosphere. 

84.  Shade  may  be  defined  as  absence  of  light  in  various 
degrees. 

85.  For  convenience  we  divide  shade  into  natural  shade 
and  accidental  shadow. 

86.  Eeflection  is  light  thrown  back  on  to  an  object  from 
its  surroundings. 

87.  The  laws  appertaining  to  ordinary  white  light  apply 
also  to  its  component  parts — blue,  red,  yellow,  &c. 

88.  Experimental  results   with  prismatic    colours  and 
with  pigment  colours  differ  very  much. 

89.  The  difference  between  the  highest  known  trans- 
parency and  the  densest  opacity  is  said  to  be  one  of  degree 
only. 

90.  Shadows  usually  reveal  the  surfaces  on  which  they 
fall  more  than  the  shapes  which  cast  them. 

91.  Shadows   are    ordinarily  clearly  defined    at   their 
edges,  and  darkest  close  to  the  objects  casting  them. 

92.  Graduated  shade  conveys  the  idea  of  roundness,  and 
the  simplest  form  of  it  may  be  seen  in  the  cylinder,  where 
the  gradation  is  in  one  direction  only. 

93.  In  shading  objects,  tenderness  and  delicacy  of  work 
should  be  aimed  at  rather  than  darkness. 

94.  Shadows    indicate    the  direction    from  which   the 


64 


On  Liglit  and  Shade. 


light  falls  on  an  object ;  and  not  unfrequently  the  size  of 
the  light,  whether  great  or  small,  in  comparison  with  the 
object. 

95.  Shadows  often  to  some  extent  locate  the  objects 
casting  them,  by  showing  that  they  touch  a  surface,  or  that 
they  are  removed  from  it. 

9G.  When  the  light  on  an  object  is  strong  or  bright,  the 
shades  light  (showing  much  reflection),  and  the  shadows 
clear,  the  idea  of  sunlight  is  conveyed. 

97.  We  have  hitherto  spoken  of  light  and  shade  only 
as  applied  to  objects.  Its  application  to,  and  uses  in  a  pic- 
ture, must  be  briefly  treated  in  another  chapter. 


CHAPTER   IX. 

OK  DRAWING  FEOM  FLAT  COPIES. 

98.  FEW  departments  of  education  seem  to  have  been 
more  entirely  misunderstood  than  Drawing,  and  the  prac- 
tice of  teaching  it.  By  some  it  is  thought  that  if  good 
examples,  whether  of  heads  or  landscapes,  are  provided, 
and  the  student  has  only  patience  enough  to  make  a  good 
copy,  all  is  well.  Now  we  do  not  deny  that  there  are 
advantages  to  be  derived  from  careful  copying,  but  it 
should  not  for  a  moment  be  supposed  that  this  alone  is 
Art  education.  We  have  elsewhere  said  that  the  study 
of  Art  is  twofold,  a  science  and  an  art — a  science  to  be 
known,  and  an  art  to  be  practised.  But  the  two  must 
operate  in  combination  with  each  other.  A  language  is 
not  learned  by  merely  copying  its  alphabetical  characters, 
however  skilfully,  but  by  obtaining  such  a  knowledge  of 
its  grammar  as  will  enable  the  student  to  understand  its 
structure  and  apply  its  rules.  Few  things  can  be  more 
mischievous  to  a  beginner  than  setting  him  to  copy  heads, 
such  as  Julien's,  or  landscapes,  such  as  Hubert's,  and 
especially  such  as  those  bearing  the  name  of  Raze.  Even 
the  copying  of  Harding's  trees,  without  attending 'to  the 
instructions  contained  in  the  text,  can  be  of  little  advan- 
tage. The  usual  result  of  such  a  practice  with  thoughtless 

and  stupid  persons  is  idle   deception,  inasmuch  as  they 

55 


66  On  Drawing  from  Flat  Copies. 

imagine  that  they  have  done  something  worthy  or  credit- 
able ;  whilst  with  intelligent  and  inquiring  minds  it  soon 
ends  in  disgust,  for,  although  they  are  unable  to  devise  a 
better  way,  they  are  conscious  of  the  worthlessness  of  this 
as  a  means  of  real  development. 

99.  It  may  be  inquired,  then,  Ought  flat  copies  to  be 
used  at  all  ? — and,  if  so,  what  kind  should  they  be,  and  how 
ought  they  to  be  used  ?     We  reply,  that  much  advantage 
may  be  gained  by  copying  good  examples  rightly.     We  do 
not  say  merely  correctly,  but  rightly ;  not  by  the  slavish 
and  laborious  imitation  of  an  example,   stroke  for  stroke 
and  point  for  point,  but  by  the  honest  carrying  out  of  the 
intentions  and   spirit  or  motive  of  the  example.     Let  it 
ever  be  remembered  that  really  conscientious  effort  is  as 
important  in  Art  as  in  other  studies,  and  its  neglect  can 
only  tend  towards  moral  delinquency. 

100.  The  Department  of  Science  and  Art  has  issued  an 
almost  exhaustless  series  of  outline  studies — some  of  them 
very  graceful — the  copying  of  which  affords  excellent  exer- 
cise for  eye  and  hand,  and  is  best  suited  to  intending  de- 
signers :  this,  in  fact,  was  their  original  purpose. 

On  the  other  hand,  busy  publishers  have  issued  an 
endleas  mass  of  lithographic  examples,  in  landscapes,  in 
heads,  in  flowers,  &c.,  which  seem  generally  to  have  been 
prepared  more  with  a  view  to  effect  than  truth.  However 
these  may  be  regarded  by  the  student,  he  cannot  do  wrong 
in  adopting  a  course  that  will  educate  his  faculties  in  all 
that  appertains  to  truth  and  beauty.  It  is  proposed  to 
Bketch  such  a  course  here. 


CHAPTER  X. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  A  COURSE  OF  STUDY, 

101.  IN  laying  out  a  course  of  exercises  for  the  stu- 
dent, it  will  be  perceived  that  all  his  faculties  will  be  called 
into  use : — 

(A.)  The  eye  to  see  contour  or  outline  truly,  and  the 

hand  to  trace  accurately  what  the  eye  sees. 
(B.)  The  mind  to  perceive  delicate,  even,  and  subtly 

varying  shade,  and  the  hand  to  produce  it  with 

a  point — pen,  pencil,  or  brush, 
(c. )  The  mind  to  distinguish  the  appearances  of  things, 

and  the  hand  to  sketch  them  from  nature. 
(D.  )  The  mind  to  learn  the  essential  characteristics  of 

things. 
(E.)  The  judgment  to  have  regard  more  to  the  purpose 

of  doing  (viz.   improvement)  than  to  what  is 

done  (the  drawing). 

(A.)  Taking  this  proposed  course  in  detail,  we  find  flat 
outline  resolving  itself  into — 

1.  Rectangular    figures,    such    as    squares,    parallelo- 
grams, &c. 

2.  Curvilinear  symmetrical  forms. 

3.  Mixed  or  compound  forms. 

4.  Natural  objects  that  are  flat,  such  as  leaves,  and  flat 
copies  of  objects. 

67 


68          Suggestions  for  a  Course  of  Study. 

102.  In  this  course  it  is  not  to  be  understood  that 
the  entire  stage  of  outline  drawing  must  be  completed 
before  beginning  the  shading  exercises  or  the  sketching 
from  objects.     All  three  may  be  prosecuted  simultaneously 
with  advantage. 

103.  Outline    is  the  simplest    means  by   which    form 
may  be  suggested  or  represented,  and  as  an  exercise  it  is 
best  to  practise  it    from  outline  drawings  or    from  flat 
models.    If  a  student  can  draw  a  square  and  an  oblong 
(parallelogram)   accurately,   he    may  proceed    at    once  to 
symmetrical  and  curvilinear  forms,  such  as  Fig.  40  (a  and 
b),  only  much  larger. 

104.  The  order  of  procedure  in  which  such    outline 
drawings  should  be  executed  is  as  follows  : — 

1.  'Block  in'  the  general  shape,   deciding  upon   the 
proportions. 

2.  Draw  all  the  parts  definitely. 

3.  Rub  down  all  the  lines  with  a  piece  of  bread  till  they 
are  only  just  visible,  and  then"  make  the  true  outline,  deli- 
cately but  clearly. 

105.  To  '  block  in '  the  general  shape,  the  student  should 
proceed  much  as  a  sculptor  would  in  preparing  his  marble  ; 
first  hewing  out  the  form  roughly,  and,  in  the  sculptor's 
case,  rather  larger  than  will  be  ultimately  required,  but 
always  securing  the  correct  general  proportions,  and  after- 
wards completing  it.     In  Fig.  40,  a,  half  the  figure  is  left, 
only  'blocked  in.' 

This  method  of  working  is  very  useful  when  enlarging 
or  reducing  a  drawing.    In  enlarging  or  reducing  always  ob- 


Suggestions  for  a  Course  of  Study.          59 

observe  the  proportions  of  the  copy  by  dividing  it  into 
halves,  quarters,  or  thirds  ;  then  '  block  in '  these  quantities 
of  such  size  as  may  be  determined  upon.  (See  Fig.  40,  #.) 
106.  The  'blocking  in'  need  not  be  done  with  long 
curved  lines,  but  with  shorter  straight  ones — truth  of  quan- 
tity and  form  being  the  principal  aim  ;  but  afterwards, 


FIG.  40. 

when  the  whole  has  been  subdued  with  bread  and  made 
almost  invisible,  the  pencil  should  be  passed  several  times 
over  a  considerable  part  of  any  line  without  touching  it,  so 
as  to  get  the  hand  into  an  easy  and  ready  position  for  draw- 
ing with  neatness  and  precision  the  final  line.  There 
should  be  no  gradation  or  expression  ;  all  should  be  equal  in 


60          Suggestions  for  a  Course  of  Study. 

depth  and  regular  in  appearance.  But  when  copying  pro- 
jecting objects,  such  as  boxes,  boats,  &c.,  from  flat  exam- 
ples, squares  should  be  used  as  guides,  and  varying  empha- 
sis may  be  given  to  assist  in  making  some  parts  retire  and 
others  stand  forward  (as  in  Fig.  41). 

When  an  example  is  copied  the  same  size  as  the  original, 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  test  its  accuracy  by  means  of  tracing- 
paper.  This,  however,  should  never  be  done  till  the  copy 
is  carefully  made. 

• 

(B.)  The  '  mind  to  perceive,'  &c. 

107.  The  power  to  see  and  feel  delicately  is  as  important 
in  shading  as  it  is  in  form,  and  is  the  first  step  towards  real 
success. 

The  student  may  begin  first  with  a  small  piece  of 
equal  or  flat  shading,  enclosed  in  an  oblong  of,  say,  one 

inch  by  one  and  a  half.  This 
enclosed  space  may  be  filled 
with  equal  shade  in  various 
ways.  If  the  lead  pencil  be 
used,  the  space  may  be  first 
filled  with  long,  soft  (never 
hard  or  wiry),  parallel  lines  or 
bars,  nearly  touching  each  other,  and  afterwards  the 
interspaces  filled  evenly  up  with  a  finely-pointed  pencil. 
If  a  pen  or  the  point  of  a  brush  is  to  be  used,  the  work 
should  be  what  is  technically  called  'cross-hatched,'  that  is, 
short  lines  in  one  direction  are  crossed  with  short  lines 
in  another  direction ;  but  as  lines  crossing  at  great  angles 


62          Suggestions  for  a  Course  of  Study. 

produce  contrast,   the  angles  formed  by  the  lines  should 
be  Yery  acute,   as  at  B,  and  never  as  at  A.     When  this 

cross-hatching  is  quite  dry 
the  lines  may  be  again 
crossed,  till  all  the  light 
spaces  are  filled,  and  the 
whole  area  made  perfectly  even. 

Sometimes,  when  the  pencil  is  the  instrument  to  be 
used,  and  the  paper  has  sufficient  texture  or  grain  on  its 
surface,  a  faint  flat  shade  is  laid  over  the  whole  space  with 
a  stump,  made  of  leather  or  of  paper,  and  then  the  work  is 
completed  with  the  point  of  pencil  or  chalk.* 

108.  On  correcting  errors. — In  this  shade  exercise  the 
student  may  find  that  some  parts  will  require  amending  ; 
for  each  exercise   should  be  worked  at    till  quite  even. 
Suppose  some  part  is  too  dark  or  spotty,  the  dark  part 
should  be  touched  gently     .      with   a    crumb    of    bread 
rolled  into  a  shape  like —    I      or,    if    this    should     fail 
sufficiently  to  remove  the    I  I     error,  a  small  hole  should 
be  cut  in  a  piece  of  stiff    w     paper    and    laid    on    the 
drawing;  then  the  offending  dark  part  may  be  removed 
with  bread  or  artists'  gum  (india  rubber),  and  the  light 
thus  made  stippled  up  to  the  required  shade.     In  pen- 
work  the  knife  must  be  used  for  scraping  down  any  dark 
patches. 

109.  Gradation. — The  second  exercise  in    shading  is 

*  This  latter  mode  has  been  introduced  into  the  Schools  of  Art 
throughout  the  country  by  the  nowly-appointed  and  energetic  Art 
Director,  Mr.  Poynter,  R.A. 


Suggestions  for  a  Course  of  Study. 


63 


similar  to  the  first,  but  more  difficult  :  for  an  oblong  must 
be  filled  in  with  a  perfectly  even  but  graduated  tint,  the 
change  from  light  at  one  end  to 
dark  at  the  other  being  by  imper- 
ceptible degrees,  like  the  shade  on 
a  chalk  cylinder  or  on  an  egg. 

The  power  of  graduating 
delicately  is  very  important,  and 
should  be  practised  again  and 

again  till  perfect  mastery  is  obtained, — once  obtained, 
however,  the  student  may  know  that  he  has  made  real 
progress. 

"When  the  stump  is  used  in  graduating  a  surface,  it  is 
best  to  proceed  as  follows  : — First,  lay  a  perfectly  flat,  even, 
light  tint,  over  the  parts  requiring  shading,  and  afterwards 
proceed  to  lay  in  the  darker  parts,  so  tenderly  as  not  to  be 
easily  perceptible.  Never,  when  shading  light  objects, 
such  as  china,  eggs,  plaster  casts,  &c.,  make  the  shades 
dark,  but  always  light  and  tender.  All  good  work  is  deli- 
cate, though  not  feeble. 


(c.)  '  The  mind  to  distinguish,'  <&c. 

110,  If  the  student  has  read  the  Introduction  to  this 
volume,  he  will  have  learnt  that  very  few  persons  can  see 
at  all  truly,  and  that  this  is  no  fault  of  the  eye,  but  of 
early  training.      It  would  be  well  if  he  would  now  read 
again    the    remarks    '  On    the    Eye'    and    'On    Seeing.' 
(Chaps. -I.  and  III.) 

111.  It  is  evident  that  no  representation  of  an  object 


64          Suggestions  for  a  Course  of  Study. 

on  paper  can  appear  quite  the  same  as  the  original  does  ; 
for  in  nature  the  image  of  the  object  is  presented  to  the 
mind  from  two  points  of  vision,  represented  by  the  two 
eyes,  and  is  really  a  blended  image  of  two  views.  This, 
of  course,  cannot  be  put  down  on  paper,*  for  Art  recog- 
nises only  one  eye.  It  is,  therefore,  better  for  the  student 
at  first,  when  sketching  the  outline  of  any  form,  to  use 
only  one  eye,  and  to  treat  the  object  as  though  it  were 
perfectly  flat.  Some  students  find  it  a  help  to  imagine  a 
piece  of  glass  placed  in  front  of  them,  and  the  contours  of 
objects  traced  on  the  glass.  For  students  who  have  much 
difficulty  in  seeing  things  as  they  appear,  the  '  Diascope ' 
(see  Appendix),  or  a  piece  of  glass  with  squares  ruled  on  it, 
will  be  of  great  service. 

112.  It  is  in  this  stage  of  his  work  that  the  student  will 
feel  the  disadvantage  of  not  having  drawn  from  objects  in 
his  childhood  ;  and  every  opportunity  of  sketching  objects 
should  now  be  seized,   not  so  much  in  making  set  and 
formal  studies,    as  in  jotting  down  very  frequently  the 
shape  of  anything  about  him,  and  on  any  paper  that  hap- 
pens to  be  conveniently  at  hand.     A  common,  cheap  pocket 
sketch-book,  carried  in  the  pocket  ready  for  use,  will  be 
convenient 

113.  As  to  systematic  work,  it  is  best  to  go  through  a 
regular  course  of  object  drawing,  making  such  application 
of  perspective  rules  as  artists  do ;  an  explanation  of  which 
will  be  found  under  the  head  of  'Artistic  Perspective'  in 
the  present  work. 

*  This  is  seen  in  the  Stereoscope. 


Suggestions  for  a  Course  of  Study.          65 


We  may,  however,  here  state,  for  the  benefit  of  begin- 
ners, a  few  facts  in  connexion  with  the  appearances  of  some 
simple  elementary  forms. 

If  a  square  sheet  of  paper  or  cardboard  be  held  in 
front  of  the  face  and  parallel  to  it,  the  actual  shape  of  the 

square  will  be  seen  (Fig.  42)  ;  but  if       

it  be  laid  on  the  table,  still  keeping 
one  edge  of  the  paper  parallel  to  the 
spectator,  it  will  appear  foreshortened 

(Fig.  43).      If  it 

be  raised  a  little 

from     the     table, 

keeping    it    quite 
horizontal,  the  figure  will  appear  narrower  and  narrower, 
as  at  a  (Fig.  44),  until  it  is  raised  to  the  level  of  the  eye, 


FIG.  43. 


FIG.  42. 


I— 


*c* 


8' 


FIG.  44. 

when  the  square  is  lost  in  a  line,  as  at  J.  Eaising  it 
higher,  it  assumes  the  shape  seen  at  d.  If  the  retiring  side 
lines  of  each  square  be  continued  or  'produced,'  they  will 
all  appear  to  converge  towards  a  point  in  the  centre  of  the 
line,  c,  exactly  opposite  the  eye  of  the  spectator.  This  is 
parallel  perspective. 
5 


66 


Suggestions  for  a  Course  of  Study. 


114.  If  we  now  place  a  square  piece  of   cardboard   on 
each  side  of  the  first  one,  and  still  parallel  to  the  spectator, 
we  shall  find  a  similar  result,  as  shown  at  e  and  /,  where 
all  the  receding  lines  appear  to  converge  towards  the  point 
opposite  the  spectator's  eye,  which  in  parallel  perspective  is 
called  the  vanishing  point,  and  usually  marked  v.  P.     Of 
course,  the  same  remark  would  apply  to  the  circle,  if  placed 
in  any  of  the  squares. 

115.  If  the  square  cardboard  be  placed  with  one  edge 
on  the  table,  and  exactly  opposite  the  spectator,   and  its 
plane  vertical,  the  sides  will  not  be  visible,  and  it  will  have 
to  be  represented  by  a  vertical  line.     If,  keeping  it  in  the 
same  direction  exactly,  it  be  moved  a  little  to  the  right 
hand  or  to  the  left,  the  plane  becomes  again  visible,  as 
shown  at  g  in  Fig.  44 ;  the  retiring  lines  converging  towards 
the  v.  P.  (vanishing  point)  opposite  the  eye. 


Fio.  45. 


FIG.  46. 


11C.  We  have  a  similar    result   of    foreshortening  in 
the  two  views  of    the  round    table   (Figs.    45  and  46), 


Suggestions  for  a  Course  of  Study. 


67 


and  in  the  four  retiring  planes  of  the  transparent  cube 
(Fig.  47). 


FIG.  47. 

117.  Now  let  the  square  cardboard  be  laid  on  the  table, 
with  one  corner  towards  the  spectator :  the  appearance 
will  be  as  seen  in  Fig.  48.  As  the  cardboard  is  raised 


_  .  -  -  H.I. 


more  nearly  to  the  level  of  the  eye  (still  keeping  it  hori- 
zontal), it  will  appear  narrower  (as  A,  Fig.  49).  Raising  it 
almost  to  the  level  of  the  eye,  it  assumes  a  shape  as  at  B  ; 
and  finally,  when  it  is  exactly  level  with  the  eye,  the 
whole  square  is  lost  in  the  line,  c,  and  forms  part  of  the 
H.  L.  (horizontal  line).  If  the  card  is  raised  above  the  eye 
U  little,  its  shape  will  appear  as  at  D.  It  will  be  observed, 


08         Suggestions  for  a  Course  of  Study. 

that  in  this  view  of  the  square  the  retiring  lines  go  in  two 
different  directions,  to  the  right  and  to  the  left,  but  that 
all  those  lines  which  are  parallel  to  each  other  recede  to  the 
same  point.  This  view  of  the  square  is  called  angular  or 
oblique  perspective. 

118.  In  this  instance  the  two  outside  corners  are  at  the 
same  distance  from  the  spectator,  and  therefore  on  the  same 
level.  Further,  if  the  retiring  lines  on  each  side  be  ex- 
tended, they  will  meet  on  the  level  of  the  eye  (H.  L.),  at  the 
same  distance  on  each  side  from  the  square. 

Suppose,  now,  that  the  square  cardboard  be  placed  so 
that  one  outside  corner  is  further  from  the  spectator  than 
the  other,  we  shall  have  a  result  as  follows  (Fig.  50): — 


B 


A 
FIG.  50. 


The  corner,  c,  will  be  higher  than  B,  and  the  line,  A  c; 
shorter  than  A  B.     The  angle,  D,  is  not  over  the  nearest 
angle,  A,  and  the  receding  lines,  A  c  and  B  D,  when  con-' 
tinned,  terminate  on  the  'H.  L.'  much  nearer  to  the  figure 
than  do  the  lines  A  B  and  c  D. 

119.  A  few  careful  exercises  drawn  from  the  square 
cardboard,  or  from  a  square  of  wire,  placed  in  various 
positions,  will  prepare  the  student  for  entering  more  fully 
into  the  drawing  of  cubical  objects,  such  as  boxes,  chairs, 


Suggestions  for  a  Course  of  Study.          69 


houses,  &c.,  by  rule,  as  shown  in  the  chapter  on  '  Artistic 
Perspective.' 

120.  In  drawing  from   objects  the   student  should  be 
careful  not  to  alter  his  position  when  view- 
ing his  model,  as,  of  course,  it  will  appear 

different  from  each  new  point  of  view. 
Sometimes  beginners  use  an  *  eye  -  stand ' 
(like  Fig.  51),  which  is  simply  a  strong 
upright  wire  on  a  stand,  on  which  a  piece 
of  card  slides  up  .or  down:  a  knitting- 
needle  stuck  into  a  pincushion,  or  into  a 
block  of  wood,  will  do.  In  the  card  is 
a  hole,  through  which  to  look  at  the 
object  again  and  again  without  danger  of 
changing  the  *  point  of  view.' 

121.  One    of    the    principal    difficulties 

that  the  beginner  meets  with  in  drawing  from  objects  is  in 
determining  the  apparent  width  of  their  retiring  planes. 
Only  experience  will  enable  him  to  overcome  these  diffi- 
culties, though  he  may  be  greatly  assisted  by  using  the 
Diascope,  or  a  piece  of  ruled  glass  before  referred  to.  The 
most  common  mistake  is  in  making  retiring  planes  too 
wide,  as  in  the  chair-seat  in  Fig.  52,  instead  of  like 
Fig.  53,  which  is  more  agreeable. 

122.  In    drawing    cylindrical    forms,    such    as    mugs, 
basins,  &c.,  a  frame-work  should  always  be  made,  so  as  to 
keep  the  lower  lines  curved  in  relation  to  the  upper  lines. 
Such  frame-work  may  be  drawn  as  in  Fig.   54,  or  as  in 

It  is  a  good  plan  for  the  student  to  consider  the 


FIG.  61. 


Fig.  55. 


70          Suggestions  for  a  Course  of  Study. 


FIG.  52. 


FIG.  53. 


Fia.  54. 


FIG.  55. 


Suggestions  for  a  Course  of  Study. 


71 


object  as  transparent,  and  draw  it  accordingly.  The  com- 
mon error  in  drawing  forms  of  this  kind  is  shown  in  Fig. 
56,  at  A,  where  the  two  outside  vertical  lines  are  longer 


FIG.  56. 


than  the  nearest  line,  a  b,  and  where  the  lower  curve  termi- 
nates at  each  end  in  a  sharp  corner,  c  d. 

123.  The  habit  of  imagining  a  plane  of  glass  for  the 
picture  plane,  between  the  spectator  and  the  object,  and 
viewing  it  only  with  one  eye,  will  often  greatly  assist  in 
ascertaining  accurately  either  the  inclination  or  the  curve 
of  a  line. 

124.  The  square,  the  cube,  and  the  cylinder,  form  the 
basis  for  drawing  most  other  regular  forms,  and  should, 
therefore,   be  carefully  studied  and  well  mastered   before 
attempting    irregular    and    intricate    objects.      "When  the 
student  has  gone  through  this  course  conscientiously,  he 
will  be  fitted  to  proceed  to  the  study  of  any  special  depart- 
ment of  Art,  as  landscape,  figures,  &c. 

(D.)  'Tlie  mind  to  learn,'  &c. 

125.  Another  stage  in  this  course  will  be  to  gain  the 
habit  of  so  looking  at  natural  objects  as  to  be  impressed 
with  those  properties  or  qualities  about  them   by  which 
they  are  most  clearly  distinguished  from  other  objects  and 


72          Suggestions  for  a  Course  of  Study. 


Vw.  57. 


Suggestions  for  a  Course  of  Study.          73 


FIG.  58. 


74          Suggestions  for  a  Course  of  Study. 

from  one  another.  In  a  simple  way  this  is  explained  at 
some  length  in  Chaps.  III.  and  XVI.,  '  On  Observing  Na- 
ture' and  'On  Character.' 

This  habit  is  but  another  term  for  the  power  of  seeing, 
which  has  been  elsewhere  spoken  of.  It  should  be  begun 
in  childhood,  in  what  are  known  as  'object  lessons,'  and 
in  some  of  the  exercises  of  the  '  Kindergarten '  system. 
A  student  who  has  not  had  such  advantages,  nor  the  great 
advantage  of  watching  others  draw,  may  do  much  for  him- 
self by  a  few  set  exercises,  both  from  drawings  and  from 
nature.  Some  good  examples  of  what  is  here  meant  may 
be  found  in  several  of  our  comic  serials,  where  the  pecu- 
liarities which  are  strongly  characteristic  of  a  thing  or  of 
a  person  are  slightly  exaggerated,  and  which,  though  gro- 
tesque, have  in  them  much  truth. 

12G.  The  power  of  observing  the  essential  characteristics 
of  a  place  was  one  of  Turner's  most  striking  peculiarities. 
Wherever  he  went  he  was  perpetually  observing  and  sketch- 
ing ;  and  although  some  of  his  sketches  were  almost  un- 
intelligible to  others,  to  himself  they  were  full  of  meaning. 
A  curious  example  of  this  (a  Sunrise)  is  shown  by  Mr. 
Ruskin  in  Modern  Painters.*  The  illustrations  given  in 
Figs.  57  and  58  are  from  a  slight  pencil-sketch  of  a  Water- 
fall by  Turner,  in  the  possession  of  the  author.  They  are 
as  nearly  as  possible  like  the  original  as  the  mode  of 
reproduction  would  allow,  and  bear  evidence  of  the  fact 
that  he  had  a  definite  intention  in  every  stroke  of  his 
pencil. 

*  Vol.  v.  p.  187. 


Suggestions  for  a  Course  of  Study.          75 

(E.)  *  The  judgment  to  have,'  &c. 

127.  The  unreasonableness  and  impatience  of  ignorant 
persons,  in  expecting  large   results  from  small  and  brief 
exertions,  have  been  most  mischievous  to  those  who  have 
had  to  do  with  Art,  whether  as  teachers  or  as  students.     A 
would-be  amateur  applies  to  a  teacher  for  a  few  lessons,  to 
enable  him  '  just  to  dash  off  a  few  telling  effects  from  na- 
ture with  his  brush.     He  has  never  drawn  much,  and  does 
not  care  for  the  pencil  ;  all  he  wants  is  just  to  be  able  to 
paint  effectively  and  quickly.'     Now,  in  such  a  case  as  this, 
one  of  two  things   is  certain — either  that  our  would-be 
amateur  must  be  wonderfully  gifted,  or  that  the  teacher 
must  be  uncommonly  stupid  to  have  taken  so  many  years 
to  acquire  that  which  is  to  be  learned  in  a  few  lessons. 

In  all  true  artistic  feeling,  the  pursuit,  not  the  result,  is 
the  reward ;  for  where  Art  is  rightly  pursued,  it  produces  a 
continual  satisfaction  in  the  fact  that,  however  slow,  there 
is  progress,  and  that  progress  is  sure ;  and  although  the 
work  done  may  have  no  mercantile  value  whatever,  it  may 
be  regarded  as  the  effort  of  an  immortal  mind  striving  to 
improve  itself,  and,  therefore,  precious. 

128.  After  going    through    such  a  course  as  is  here 
sketched  out,  the  student  will  find  that  his  eye  and  hand 
have  been  brought  under  strict  discipline,  his  perceptions 
quickened,  his  feelings  made  sensitive,  and  his  whole  being 
brought  into  sympathy  with  truth  and  beauty  in  Nature 
and  in  Art.     He  is  thus  prepared  to  enter  with  confidence 
of  success  into  any  technical  application  of  drawing,  or  is 
able  to  develop  his  faculties  for  still  higher  enjoyments  in 
that  outward  manifestation  of  God  which  we  call  Nature. 


CHAPTER    XI. 

ON  CONTRAST. 

129.  CONTRAST  and  gradation  in  Art  may  be  consid- 
ered as  almost  opposite  terms — the  former  revealing,  and 
the  latter  concealing,  many  forms  and  facts.     Contrast  is 
exciting  and  irritating,  whilst  gradation  is  soothing  and 
agreeable. 

In  order  properly  to  understand  contrast,  the  student 
would  do  well  to  make  it  an  experimental  inquiry. 

130.  If,  at  night,  the  upper  portion  of  an  open  book  be 
held  vertically  against  the  strong  light  of  a  lamp,  and  the 
rays  from  the  lamp  be  allowed  at  the  same  time  to  enter 
the  eye,  the  letters  on  the  upper  part  of  the  book  will  be 
invisible,  or  nearly  so,  whilst  the  characters  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  page  can  be  readily  seen.     The  rays  of  light 
entering  the  eye,  being  so  strong,  cause  the  *  pupil'  to  be 
contracted,  and  the  rays  from  the  book  are  too  feeble  to  ren- 
der the  letters  visible. 

131.  The  eye  is  similarly  affected,  but  in  a  less  degree, 
in  the  following  diagram  (Fig.  59).*    Let  A  and  A  repre- 
sent two  pieces  of  paper,  shaded  with  a  perfectly  even  and 
equal  tint.      Let  B  and  B  likewise  represent  two   similar 
pieces  of  paper,  with  a  similar  perfectly  even  and  equal 
tint,  only  darker  than  A  and  A.     Now  let  them  bo  placed 

*  Chuvreul  on  Colour. 

76 


On  Contrast. 


77 


as  in  the  diagram,  when  it  will  be  seen  that  the  order  of 
darkness  will  be  as  follows  : — A  1  will  appear  the  lightest ; 
A  2,  darker ;  B  3,  darker  still ;  and  u  4,  by  its  juxtaposition 
to  A  1,  darkest  of  all. 


FIG.  59. 

132.  This  force  of  contrast  will  be  more  strongly  ap- 
parent in  the  following  experiment,  which,  if  made  on  a 
moderately  large  scale,  may  also  be  a  good  exercise  for 
the  student.  Obtain  a  number  of  strips  of  paper,  and  let 
them  be  lettered,  numbered,  and  cut  into  widths  bearing 
a  similar  relation  to  those  marked  A,  B,  c,  &c.,  in  Fig.  60. 


A    B 
3  5 

c 

4 

D 
3 

El 
2 

F 
1 

C 
0 

H    1 
1   2 

FIG.  60. 

Let  G  remain  clear.  On  all  except  G  lay  a  perfectly  flat 
wash  of  colour  (say  Sepia)  ;  now,  on  all  except  r,  G,  and  H, 
lay  another  flat  wash.  On  all  except  E,  r,  G,  H,  and  I,  lay 
a  third.  Lay  a  fourth  wash  on  A,  B,  c,  D  ;  a  fifth  on  B  and 
c  ;  and,  lastly,  a  sixth  on  B. 


78  On  Contrast. 


Place  these  strips  in  juxtaposition  quite  neatly  on  a 
sheet  of  white  paper  or  cardboard,  and  in  the  order  here 
given.  If  rightly  done  they  will,  when  viewed  from  a  little 
distance,  have  the  appearance  of  a  fluted  column. 

133.  The  strongest  contrast  in  Nature  is  of  white 
against  black  and  black  against  white,  as  may  be  seen  in 
Fig.  61,  where  the  white  space  in  the  centre  of  b  looks 


Fia.  61. 

lighter  than  the  surrounding  paper,  and  a  looks  darker  than 
it  would  if  laid  on  a  tinted  or  dark  surface. 

134.  Contrast  in  Art,  however,  has  a  much  wider  signi- 
ficance than  when  applied  to  light  and  dark  alone,  and  is 
powerfully  felt  in  the  opposition  of  colours,  of  objects,  and 
of  properties  and  qualities  of  things. 

Fully  to  illustrate  the  contrasts  of  colour  would  require 
very  many  coloured  diagrams,  and  extend  far  beyond  the 
limits  of  this  work. 

The  student  may,  however,  assist  himself  by  making 
experiments  with  various  coloured  pieces  of  paper  or  card- 
board ;  and,  if  he  wishes  to  pursue  the  subject  further,  may 
consult  any  of  the  following  works  : — Field's  treatise  on 


On  Contrast. 


79 


Cliromotograpliy  ;  Grammar  of  Ornament,  by  Owen  Jones ; 
Principles  and  Practice  of  Art,  by  J.  D.  Harding;  or  one 
of  the  many  works  on  Decorative  Art. 


FIG.  62. 


135.  The  forms  of  objects  are  contrasted  with  each  other 
to  make  them  mutually  more  strongly  felt,  as  when  a 
straight  line  is  set  against  a  curved  one,  or  a  square  figure 


80 


Chi  Contrast. 


against  a  round  one.  The  value  of  this  kind  of  contrast 
will  be  felt  not  only  in  the  dancing  figures  (Fig.  62),  but 
especially  in  many  of  the  landscapes  in  the  work.  (See 
Composition,  Chap.  XXIV.) 

136.  The  properties  of  various  bodies  are  often  set  in 
contrast  with  each  other  in  Art ;  as,  for  instance,  the  soft, 
thick,  round  masses  of  moss  on  a  roof  of  hard,  square  slates, 
or  on  a  rock ;  or  a  tender  spray  of  leafage  by  a  sturdy  stem  ; 
or  a  hard,  flat  wall. 

137.  Contrast  in  size  is  frequently  used  to  enable  us  to 
judge  of  an  unknown  quantity  by  means  of  that  of  which 
the  size  is  known  and  fixed.    This  may  be  seen  in  the  arches 
on  page  84.     A  portrait  of  Tom  Thumb  could  only  be  cor- 
rectly estimated  by  comparison  with  ordinary  figures  or 
objects,  whose  magnitude  is  known  ;  and  in  like  manner 
the  stoutness  of  Sancho  is  used  to  make  the  lanky  length  of 
Don  Quixote  more  strongly  felt. 


CHAPTER    XII. 

ON  BELIEF. 

»  138.  BY  the  term  'relief  is  simply  meant  the  separa- 
tion of  an  object  from  that  which  is  behind  it ;  and  in 
drawing  it  is  obtained  by  making  the  edges  of  the  shading 
perfectly  even  and  clear,  and  not  necessarily  by  contrasting 
strong  dark  against  strong  light. 

139.  In  Nature  we  seldom  see  things  in  relief  by  violent 
contrast,  but  constantly  by  tender  and  varied,  but  clear 
opposition  ;  by  which  we  become  so  perfectly  conscious  of 
their  shapes,  and  of  their  location  in  space,  that  the  eye  no 
longer  voluntarily  follows  the  outline.     It  is  scarcely  possi- 
ble to  trace  the  precise  contour  or  limit  of  many  objects, 
unless  they  be  either  superficial  or.  strongly  and  equally  light 
or  dark  throughout  their  entire  surface. 

140.  The  term  '  relief '  is  also  used  in  relation  to  colour, 
where  we  say  one  colour  is  '  relieved '  or  set  against  another ; 
but  we  think  it  less  legitimately  belongs  to  drawing  and 
painting  than  to  sculpture,  where  one  object  is  distinctly 
separated  from  another  in  the  solid. 

141.  In  sculpture  proper,  which  has  been  well  said  to  be 
'an  art  which  can  conceal  nothing,'  the  figure  is  insulated, 
and  stands  quite  clear  of  any  background  :  it  is  sculpture  in 
the  round. 

142.  Other  terms,  such  as  *  basso  relievo '  '  alto  relievo,' 

6  81 


82  On  Relief. 

and  '  mezzo  relievo/  are  commonly  applied  to  any  work  of 
sculpture  connected  more  or  less  with  any  plane  surface  or 
background.  Basso — low  or  flat — relief  has  a  very  slight 
projection  from  the  background.  Alto  relief,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  not  only  rounded  to  the  full  bulk,  but  has  gen- 
erally some  portions  of  the  figure  detached  from  the  back- 
ground. Mezzo  relief — a  style  between  the  other  two — » 
though  rounded  to  considerable  bulk,  has  no  part  entirely 
unattached  to  the  plain  surface  behind  it. 

143.  The  finest  examples  of  these  different  kinds  of 
relief,  from  various   Greek  temples,  may  be  seen  in  the 
British  Museum.     The  commonest  examples  of  bas-relief  is 
a  coin — a  penny,  a  shilling,  or  a  sovereign. 

144.  The  gates  of  the  Baptistery  of  San  Giovanni   at 
Florence,  known  as  the    '  Ghiberti  Gates,'  show  beautiful 
examples  of  relief,  though  the  introduction   of  landscape 
is  considered  by  many  critics  a  misapplication.     Our  own 
Flaxman  produced  probably  the  finest  relievos  of  modern 
date,  of  which  his  *  Shield  of  Achilles'  is  a  notable  ex- 
ample. 

145.  One  of  the  clearest  indications  of  excellence  in 
the  Grecian  bas-reliefs  is,  doubtless,  that  in  addition  to  the 
exquisiteness  and  perfection  of  work,  the  forms  are  so  skil- 
fully arranged  as  not  to  cast  shadows  that  would  interfere 
with  their  clear  manifestation. 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

ON  SIZE. 

146.  MANY  students  puzzle  themselves  by  not  knowing 
how  large  to  make  a  drawing  or  a  sketch,  and  also  by  a  con- 
fusion of  the  idea  of  size  with  that  of  proportion. 

147.  By  size  is  meant  merely  magnitude  :  proportion  is 
the  relation  which  one  thing  bears  to  another. 

148.  The   size  of  a  sketch   or  drawing  is  to  a  great 
extent  optional,   though  depending  chiefly  on  the  nature 
of  the  subject,  and  partly  on   the  time  at  the  disposal  of 
the  student  as  well  as  his  power,  and  the  ultimate  purpose 
of  the  drawing.     Let  us  suppose  he  wishes  to  represent 
the  lamp  on  the  table  before  him — it  will  be  equally  right 
to  draw  it  any  size,  from  one  to  six  or  eight  inches  ;  but 
if  the  object  be  large,  such  as  a  house,  an  elephant,  or  a 
tree,  then  he  must  consider  how  it  will  be  best  placed  on 
his  paper,  without  being  too  little  on  the  one  hand,  or  too 
overwhelming  on  the  other. 

149.  There  are,  however,  some  objects,  such   as  fruit, 
flowers,  &c.,  which  should,  when  possible,  be  drawn  the 
same  size  that  they  actually  are  in  nature.     Suppose  we 
wish  to  draw  a  cluster  of  grapes,  and  we  make  them  only 
the  size  of  peas,  there  will  be  danger  that  at  first  sight  they 
will  be  mistaken  for  currants.      A  hen's  egg  on  a  small 
scale  might    be  mistaken  for  the    egg  of    some  smaller 
bird. 


84 


On  Size. 


150.    Objects  in  a  drawing    may  be    made  to   appear 
large  or  small  by  the  juxtaposition  of  some  other  objects 


FIG.  63. 


PIG.  04. 


FIG.  G5. 


of  known  size.  The  mind  instantly  sets  up  a  comparison, 
and  judges  the  indefinite  by  the  definite.  In  Fig.  63  is  a 
sketch  of  an  archway,  of  which  we  have  no  means  of 


On  Size.  85 

knowing,  even  approximately,  the  size — it  may  be  five,  ten, 
or  fifteen  feet  high.  In  Fig.  64  the  same  arch  is  given, 
but  it  is  at  once  seen,  by  the  figure  passing  through  it,  that 
it  is  probably  about  six  feet  high  ;  whilst  in  Fig.  65  the 
same  arch,  by  comparison  with  the  figure,  is  judged  to  be 
about  twenty  feet  high. 

It  is  important  when  sketching  from  nature  objects 
whose  sizes  may  be  variable,  to  sketch  also  something  near, 
the  size  of  which  is  always  the  same.  In  Fig.  65  a  ladder 
would  be  sufficient  to  determine  the  height  of  the  arch, 
without  the  figure,  for  the  '  rounds '  of  a  ladder  are  always 
about  nine  inches  apart. 

151.  Many  persons  on  visiting,  for  the  first  time,  the 
mountains  of  Switzerland,  are  not  deeply  impressed  with 
their  magnitude,  till  by  a  process  of  inferential  reasoning 
— comparing  the  tiny-looking  chalets  on  them  with  their 
surroundings — it  dawns  on  the  mind  that  the  mountains 
must  be  large.  In  like  manner  the  magnitude  of  a  grand 
mass  of  distant  cumuli  is  scarcely  perceived,  except  by  a 
similar  process  of  reasoning.  It  has  been  stated  elsewhere 
that  some  of  these  masses  reach  aii  elevation  of  twenty 
thousand  feet  from  the  earth. 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  only  by  a  process  of  reasoning 
can  we  make  ourselves  accurately  acquainted  with  the 
size  of  many  objects — the  clock-face,  tree,  mountain,  or 
moon. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

/ 

05  PROPOBTIOH. 

152.  THE  simple  meaning  of  the  term  'proportion'  is 
the  relation  which  one  thing  bears  to  another  ;   but  the 
application  of  the  term  in  Art  is  both  wide  and  varied. 

There  may  be  such  a  relation  between  the  various  parts 
of  an  object  as  to  produce  in  the  mind  a  consciousness  of 
beauty,  arising  solely  from  the  relation  of  parts  to  each 
other  and  to  the  whole,  and  quite  independent  of  any 
function  to  be  performed.  An  illustration  of  this  is  seen 
in  the  kaleidoscope,  and  in  many  kinds  of  ornament.  In 
this  case  it  is  an  appeal  to  the  aesthetic  faculty  alone. 

153.  A    second    sense    in  which    the  term  proportion 
may  be  used  is  when  it  is  applied  to  the  varied  relations 
of  parts  or  things  to  each  other  in  view  of  something  to 
be  accomplished  or  done ;   as  in  a  column   to  support  a 
superincumbent  weight,  or  a  horse  to  draw  a  load,  or  an 
athlete  to  run  a  race.     In  this  case  the  appeal  is  made  not 
to  the  feelings,  but  to  the  intellectual  faculties  and  the 
judgment. 

154.  An  object  may  have  fixed   and  unalterable   pro- 
portions, as  in  the  sides  and  angles  of  a  square.     In  some 
cases  the  proportions  are  variable,  as  in  the  human  figure, 
the  proportions  of  which  differ  much,  the  male  from  the 


On  Proportion.  87 


female,  and  various  male  forms  from  each  other,  as  the 
Discobolus,  or  the  wrestler  from  the  Athlete.  * 

In  Architecture  the  various  parts  of  a  building  should 
bear  such  a  relation  and  adjustment  of  parts  to  each  other 
and  to  the  whole,  as  to  produce  on  a  pure  and  unbiassed 
mind  a  sense  of  agreeableness,  satisfaction,  and  rest. 

155.  The   diameter  of  the  Doric   column  is  large  in 
comparison  with  the  length  of  the  column,  and  conveys  to 
the  mind  the  idea  of  solidity,  durability,  and  deep  repose. 
The  Corinthian  column,  containing  more  diameters  than 
the  Doric,  suggests  to  the  mind  the  idea  of  elegance  and 
repose. 

A  horse  may  be  said  to  be  in  good  proportion  when 
the  parts  bear  such  a  relation  to  each  other  that  it  is  well 
adapted  to  its  purpose,  whether  of  speed  or  power.  But 
to  speak  of  a  horse  being  in  good  symmetry  indicates  a 
confusion  of  ideas,  for  the  term  symmetry  refers  to  the 
corresponding  sides  or  parts  of  a 
thing.  (See  Symmetry,  Chap.  XV.) 

156.  The  proportions  of  A  and  B 
in  Fig.  66  are  exactly  the  same,  and, 
therefore,  though  they  are  different 

in  size,  they  are  the  same  in  shape. 

'/I...  ,  FIG.  66. 

Proportion  in  Art    seems  to  be 

almost  equivalent  to  '  harmony '  in  Music.     It  will  gener- 

*  The  proportion  in  length  of  the  Discobolus  is  said  to  be  seven 
heads  ;  an  Athlete  might  be  eight.  There  is  an  interesting  chapter  on 
this  subject  in  the  Handbook  of  Pictorial  Art,  by  the  Eev.  St.  John 
Tyrwhitt. 


88  On  Proportion. 


ally  be  found  that  those  forms  whose  parts  are  arranged  on 
certain  definite  proportions — where  the  whole  and  each  par- 
ticular member  is  a  multiple  of  some  simple  unit — are  most 
satisfactory.  Those  proportions  will  be  most  beautiful 
which  the  eye  can  least  readily  detect,  provided,  as  we  have 
said,  that  they  be  multiples  of  some  simple  unit.  Thus, 
the  proportions  of  a  square  being  all  alike,  as  1  to  1,  it  is 
the  most  palpable  and  least  pleasing.  The  proportion  of  a 
double  square,  or  4  to  8,  though  better,  will  be  less  beauti- 
ful than  the  more  subtle  ratio  of  5  to  8 ;  so  also,  3  to  6  than 
3  to  7,  3  to  4  than  3  to  5. 

157.  'Harmony  of  form,'  Owen  Jones  says,  'consists 
in  the  proper  balance  and  contrast  of  the  straight,  the 
inclined,  and  the  curved ; '  but  what  this  'proper  balance 
and  contrast'  is  we  are  not  told:  and  though  Hay,  in  his 
various  works,  especially  in  his  Principles  of  Symmetrical 
Beauty,  gives  a  great  number  of  figures  by  which  to  secure 
beautiful  proportions,  the  changes  that  may  be  made  with 
a  few  different  lines — like  the  changes  that  may  be  rung  on 
a  given  number  of  bells — are  so  great  and  so  subtle  as  far  to 
exceed  the  power  of  the  eye  to  calculate,  but  not  of  the 
aesthetic  faculties  to  appreciate,  and  the  mind  then  reposes 
in  the  sensation  of  the  beautiful. 


CHAPTEE    XV. 

ON  SYMMETRY. 

158.  THE  term  '  symmetry '  (so  often  misapplied)  should 
be  allowed  its  true  significance,  viz.  the  correspondence  of 
two  opposite  sides  of  a  thing. 

It  seems  to  be  a  law  of  Nature,  that  almost  every 
individual  thing  shall  be  composed  of  two  laterally 
similar  parts  in  its  outward  appearance.  As  the  internal 
arrangement  is  often  different  from  the  external  appear- 
ance, as  in  animals,  &c.,  it  would  seem  as  though  it 
was  intended  as  a  designed  principle  of  beauty.  This 
similarity  of  parts  is  found  constantly  amongst  flowers 
and  trees ;  and  in  the  decoration  of  our  houses,  both  on  the 
walls  and  in  the  furniture,  we  find  this  law  of  symmetry 
quite  a  necessity*. 

159.  A    distinction  must  be  made  between  the  sym- 
metry of  the  parts,   and  the  symmetry  of  the  group   or 
cluster.     Take  man,   for  example — a  compound  form,   a 
group  of  trunk,   limbs,   and  extremities.     The  outer  con- 
tours on  each  side  of  the    body    correspond  with    each 
other,  whilst  the  contours  of  the  sides  of  each  arm  do  not 
correspond,  nor  the  contours  of  the  two  sides  of  legs  and 
feet.     Whatever  part  of  the  group  is  balanced  by  a  similar 
member  on    the   other    side  is  itself  without   symmetry. 
The  arm,  therefore,  is  in  itself  not  symmetrical,  because 
it  is  balanced  by  a  similar  member  on  the  other  side ;  but 

89 


90 


On  Symmetry. 


the  head,  which  has  not  this  plurality,  is  perfect  in  the 
repetition  of  the  two  halves.  The  two  ovals  (Fig.  67)  will 
illustrate  this  principle  more  clearly. 

1GO.  So  also  in  the  arrangement  of  groups  or  clusters 
of  any  objects,  —  the  mind  does  not  require  an  exact 
repetition  of  forms,  so  much  as  the  recognition  of  the  law 
of  repetition.  In  a  triptych,  for  instance,  the  two  outer 
panels  may  contain  different  subjects,  provided  that  they 


FIG.  67. 

bear  some  relation  to  each  other,  and  do  not  interfere  with 
this  law  of  repetition.  It  would,  however,  be  manifestly 
wrong  to  have  a  figure  subject  in  one  panel  and  a  landscape 
in  the  other. 

161.  In  the  spandrils  of  a  Gothic  doorway,  the 
geometric  lines  forming  the  spandril  will  give  the  idea  of 
repetition  ;  then  the  subjects  filling  the  spandrils  may  be 
different,  but  must  be  the  same  in  treatment,  and  shoul'd 
bear  some  relation  to  each  other,  or  to  the  edifice  they  are 
intended  to  decorate. 


On  Symmetry. 


91 


162.  It  will  be  evident,  then,  that  as  we  must  obtain 
from  Nature  the  principles  intended  for  our  guidance,  and 
as  in  most  beautiful  natural  objects  there   is  found  the 
correspondence    of    one    side    to    another    and    reciprocal 
balance,  so  in  all  our  works,  whether  of  Fine  Art,  pro- 
perly so  called,  of  architecture,  or  of  adornment  simply, 
we  are  bound  to  recognize,  in  some  degree,  this  beautiful 
law  of  symmetry,  which  seems  to  lie  at  the  foundation  of 
all  true  ornamentation. 

We  cannot  ordinarily  apply  this  term  to  an  animal  (to  a 
horse,  for  instance),  as  indicative  of  some  special  excellence 
of  form,  for  if  it  were  not  symmetrical  it  would  be  simply 
monstrous. 

163.  In  a  limited  sense  the  term  may  be  applied  to 
Landscape,  as  when  the  'balance'  of  a  picture  is  spoken 
of,  which  mearis  such  a  disposition  of  parts,  whether  of 
light  and  shade,   or  of  colour,   as  shall  prevent  us  from 
feeling  that  one  side  of  the  picture  is  heavier  than  the 
other. 


CHAPTER    XVI. 

OH  SECURING  CHARACTER  IN  ART-WORK. 

1C4.  IF  we  look  at  the  furrows  in  a  ploughed  field,  or 
at  a  fissured  rock,  we  shall  see  a  good  illustration  of  this 
very  descriptive  word  *  character.'  Used  in  relation  to 
Art,  it  means  all  those  peculiarities,  whether  of  age, 


FIG.  68. 


FIG.  69. 


newness,  roughness,  or  any  other  qualities  which  most 
strongly  impress  themselves  on  the  mind,  and  by  which 
the  object  is  remembered,  or  its  representation  recognised. 
For  instance,  if  we  consider  the  two  bits  of  twig  given  in 
Figs.  C8  and  69,  which  at  first  sight  are  not  very  dis- 

93 


On  Securing  Character  in  Art-work.  93 

similar,  we  shall  soon  discover  that  whilst  the  one  is  full  of 
life  and  promise,  the  other,  wanting  those  markings  which 
indicate  life — the  buds — is  actually  dead. 

165.  In  making  a  drawing,  whether  from  a  copy  or  from 
Nature,  it  is  a  good  plan,  before  beginning,  to  write  on  a 
separate  paper  the  leading  peculiarities  by  which  the  work 
is  distinguished  or  characterised,  that  in  our  representation 
of  it  we  may  not  so  much  copy  the  strokes  of  the  example, 
as  the  intentions  of  those. strokes. 

Thus,  Expression  in  Art  is  but  another  word  for 
Feeling,  and  is  more  clearly  explained  than  defined. 
When  we  endeavour  to  make  a  perfectly  straight  line,  or 
produce  a  piece  of  perfectly  even  shading,  ^considerable 
care  is  required  to  keep  such  equal  pressure  of  hand  that 
no  part  may  be  darker  than  the  rest ;  but  when  we 
attempt  to  represent,  say,  a  tree,  we  have  to  ask  ourselves 
what  about  it  most  strongly  impresses  our  minds  —  in 
other  words,  what  are  its  characteristics  ?  These  we 
endeavour  to  put  down  with  such  feeling  or  sympathy  as 
we  can  command.  In  the  case  of  a  tree,  our  efforts  should 
be  directed  to  the  expression  of  leafmess  and  rotundity, 
more  than  to  an  imitation  of  the  leaves ;  but  it  will  be 
evident  that  some  knowledge  of  the  shape  of  the  leaves, 
of  their  arrangement  on  the  twigs,  and  of  the  way  in  which 
the  branches  strike  off  from  the  stem  and  from  one  another, 
will  be  necessary  to  enable  us  fully  to  get  at  and  depict  it, 
not  only  as  a  tree,  but  as  some  particular  kind  of  tree,  such 
as  oak  or  ash. 

166.  In  like  manner,  if  the  subject  be  a  mossy  rock,  we 


94          On  Securing  Character  in  Art-work. 

should  strive  to  express  ideas  of  softness  and  thickness  of 
moss,  and  the  hardness  and  angularity  or  rotundity,  the 
solidity,  and  the  granularness  of  the  rock. 

If  a  thatched  roof  be  the  object,  the  essential  qualities 
will  be  those  of  thickness,  weight,  age,  &c.  ;  and  failing  to 
express  these,  however  carefully  the  object  may  be  copied, 
it  must  be  considered  a  failure. 

167.  Speaking  generally,  character  is  most  clearly  seen 
on  the  light  parts  of  objects  and  at  their  edges,  but  chiefly 


FIG.  70. 

where  the  light  and  shade  separate — as  may  be  seen  in  the 
hamper  (Fig.  70). 

108.  In  drawing  from  Nature  it  would  be  as  impos- 
sible as  useless  to  put  all  down  that  is  before  us  — the 
camera  can  do  that  for  us  :  it  is  the  business  of  Art  to 
select  and  express  those  essential  and  striking  truths  by 
which  a  scene  may  be  identified  by  the  mind  and  impressed 
on  the  feelings. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

ON  TASTE. 

169.  VOLUMES  have  been  written  on   this  much  dis- 
puted word.     Mr.  Ruskin  says,*  and  we  cannot  do  better 
than  quote,  as  far  as  possible,  his  words, — *  Perfect  taste 
is  the  faculty  for  receiving  the  greatest  possible  pleasure 
from  those  material  sources  which  are  attractive  to  our 
moral  nature  in  its  purity  and  perfection.      He  who  re- 
ceives little  pleasure  from  these  sources  wants  taste ;  he 
who  receives  pleasure  from  any  other  sources  has  false  or 
bad  taste.' 

If  an  object,  a  form,  or  a  colour  be  right,  it  is  right, 
independently  of  our  intuitive  choice  or  *  taste.'  If  we  ad- 
mire it,  our  taste  is  good  or  pure  ;  if  we  do  not  admire  it, 
our  taste  is  bad. 

170.  The  term  'taste'  must  not  be  confounded  with 
that  of  'judgment,'  which  is  a  term  expressing  a  definite 
action  of  the  intellect.     We  may  reason  whether  a  thing  be 
right  or  wrong,  and  arrive  at  a  definite  conclusion  ;  but  this 
is  not  'taste.'     'All  exertions  of  the  intellect  are  totally 
distinct  from  taste,  properly  so  called,  which  is  the  instinc- 
tive and  instant  preferring  of  one  material  object  to  another 
without  any  obvious  reason,  except  that  it  is  proper  to  hu- 
manity in  its  perfection  so  to  do.' 

*  Modern  Painters,  Vol.  I. 

95 


96  On  Taste. 

171.  This  intuitive  faculty  may  be  affected  to  an 
unlimited  extent  by  the  circumstances  of  life.  A  child 
educated  amidst  the  surroundings  of  the  true  and  the 
beautiful  in  Art  is  much  more  likely  to  develop  into  a 
man  of  good  taste  than  one  who  continually  has  about  him 
only  the  common  and  not  beautiful  objects  of  life.  But 
this  faculty  can  be  developed  by  direct  effort,  as  well  as 
by  the  subtle  influence  of  things  of  beauty  ;  and  we  ought, 
therefore,  to  make  ourselves  acquainted  with  those  prin- 
ciDles  or  laws  by  which  objects  may  be  determined  to  be 


FIG.  71.  FIG.  73. 

right  or  wrong.  It  is  possible  that  of  the  two  slight 
sketches  (Figs.  71  and  72),  some  persons  might  at  first 
sight  prefer  the  first :  if  so,  the  taste  is  bad.  If  we 
proceed  to  analyse  them,  we  shall  soon  arrive  at  a  definite 
and  unalterable  decision  that  the  second  is  the  more  beauti- 
ful, both  on  account  of  the  variety  of  its  contour  and  from 
its  suitableness.  Whether  or  not  it  might  be  made  more 
beautiful  by,  say,  a  little  alteration  in  the  proportions  or 
in  the  curves,  would  be  ascertained  by  a  mixed  exercise 
of  the  feelings  and  intellect,  under  the  control  of  the 
judgment. 


On  Taste.  97 

172.  Taste,  then,  is  the  instant  and  spontaneous  opera- 
tion of  a  faculty  of  our  moral  nature,  which  is  good  or  bad 
in  proportion  as  it  is  affected  agreeably  by  that  which  is 
pure  and  beautiful,  or  by  that  which  is  false. 

173.  We  are  liable,  however,  to  be  misled  by  the  arti- 
ficial value  which  '  the  World '  puts  on  some  things.    When 
we  are  told  by  the  learned  connoisseur  that  'that  little 
china  vase,  only  twelve  or  fifteen   inches  high,  cost  800 
guineas,  and  would  fetch    1000  guineas  at  Christie's  to- 
morrow,' we  are  in  danger  of   having  our  judgment  pre- 
judiced ;  and  before  accepting  the  stated  pecuniary  value  of 
the  vase  as  its  real  value,  we  ought  to  satisfy  ourselves  with 
regard  to  its  true  excellence,  and  ascertain  wherein  that 
excellence  consists. 

Our  willingness  to  be  pleased,  and  to  please,  in  speak- 
ing of  matters  of  Art,  should  not  be  allowed  to  lead  us 
into  the  position  of  the  enthusiastic  old  gentleman  who, 
when  his  friend  remarked,  as  they  passed  through  a  pic- 
ture-gallery together,  how  beautiful  that  was,  replied  '  Oh  ! 
very  beautiful,  very  beautiful  indeed ;  which  is  it,  sir  ? ' 
Let  us  know  clearly  and  distinctly  what  we  are  to  admire, 
and  why.  Is  it  beauty  of  form  or  colour  ?  or  is  it  the 
antiquity  of  the  object  ?  or  has  it  a  history  ?  If  it  possesses 
any  of  these  qualifications,  it  may  rightly  command  our 
attention ;  but  the  reason  of  its  worth  must  be  distinctly 
maintained.  It  is  not  *  pretty'  because  fashionable,  nor 
beautiful  because  old  ;  if  it  has  age  or  history  it  may  be 
venerable.  If  we  are  told  that  it  was  excavated  from  the 
ruins  of  some  ancient  city,  it  is  interesting  as  a  relic  ;  or  it 
7 


98 


On  Taste. 


may  be  the  work  of  some  once  famous  but  now  extinct 
pottery,  and  has  been  in  the  possession  of  some  royal  family, 
and,  moreover,  is  the  only  specimen  of  the  kind  known  to 
exist ;  then  it  becomes  a  thing  of  history,  and  we  must 
admire  it  accordingly. 


CHAPTER   XVIII. 

ON  STYLE. 

174.  STYLE  in  drawing  is  what  '  manner    or  '  hand '  is 
in  writing.     One  person  may  draw  in  a  broad  style  (not 
necessarily  bold),  as  with  a  piece  of  charcoal ;  another  in  a 
fine  style  (not  niggling),  as  with  a  pen.     It  has  nothing  to 
do  Avith  truth  of  work,  for  a  drawing  may  be  broad  and 
true,  or  fine  and  false,  or  vice  versa.     Some  styles  of  work- 
ing, however,  may  be  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  expression 
of  some  particular  kinds  of  truths  :  for  example,  nothing 
could  be  better  than  the  reed  pen,  used  as  Prout  used  it,  to 
express  the  kind  of  truth  that  he  aimed  at  in  his  old  build- 
ings ;  or  than  the  common,  coarse,  whity-brown  paper  that 
David  Cox  was  so  'fond  of,  and  used  in  some  of  his  wild 
wind  and  moorland  pictures. 

175.  But  the  term  style  may  apply  not  only  to  the  man- 
ner of  particular  individuals  in  their  way  of  working,  but 
also  to   Schools   and   communities  ;    as,  for  example,  the 
'  Byzantine  style '  of    ornament,  or   the    *  Dutch  style '  of 
painting,  and  the  *  Elizabethan  style  '  of  architecture. 

Not  that  Schools  are  determined  or  known  by  their 
style  alone,  but  by  their  motive.  The  motive  of  some  of 
the  early  Italian  Schools  was  fidelity  of  imitation — so,  also, 
the  Dutch  Schools  ;  the  motive  in  Art  as  represented  by 
Fra  Angelico,  Bartolomeo,  and  others,  was  expression  ; 


100 


On  Style. 


whilst  colour  seems  to  have  been  a  chief  motive  of  the 
Venetian  School. 

176.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  inasmuch  as  Style 
is  but  the  mode  of  expression  employed  by  a  person  or  a 
School,  and  is  not  either  the  expression  itself  nor  what  is 
to  be  expressed,  it  is  of  secondary  importance,  and  indeed 
entirely  subservient  to  MOTIVE. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 

ON  MOTIVE. 

177.  ON  Motive  in  Art- work,  whether  in  a  child  or  a 
School,  depends  the  ultimate  issue  in  good  or  ill,  truth  or 


FIG.  73. 


Fro.  74. 

falseness.    'The  motive  exhibited  severally  in  the  two  little 

woodcuts  (Figs.  73  and  74)  would,  if  pursued,  be  whole- 

101 


102  On  Motive. 


some  or  disastrous.  In  the  first  one,  our  child  aims  at 
something  clever,  regardless  of  individual  truth ;  whilst  in 
Fig.  74,  truth  of  flower,  of  stone,  of  tree,  is  strongly  aimed 
at,  though  feebly  expressed  :  the  ultimate  issue  of  such  aim, 
however,  would  be  natural  and  healthy. 

178.  There  is  a  well-known  law  in  morals  which  seems 
closely  to  apply  to  Art.  '  All  virtue  and  goodness  tend  to 
make  men  powerful  in  this  world  ;  but  they  who  aim  at 
the  power  have  not  the  virtue.  Again  :  Virtue  is  its  own 
reward,  and  brings  with  it  the  truest  and  highest  pleasures  ; 
but  they  who  cultivate  it  for  the  pleasure-sake  are  selfish, 
not  religious,  and  will  never  gain  the  pleasure,  because 
they  never  can  have  the  virtue.'*  The  same  formula, 
transposing  the  word  'Art'  for  'virtue,'  seems  to  hold 
good  here. 

If  this  be  true — and  we  scarcely  think  it  can  be 
doubted — the  motive  of  the  student  should  be  a  very  high 
and  pure  one.  As  Ruskin  truly  says,  '  Every  action,  down 
even  to  the  drawing  of  a  line  or  utterance  of  a  syllable,  is 
capable  of  a  peculiar  dignity  in  the  manner  of  it,  which  we 
sometimes  express  by  saying  it  is  truly  done  (as  a  line  or 
tone  is  true),  so,  also,  it  is  capable  of  dignity  still  higher  in 
the  MOTIVE  of  it.  For  there  is  no  action  so  slight,  nor  so 
mean,  but  it  may  be  done  to  a  great  purpose,  and  ennobled 
therefore  ;  nor  is  any  purpose  so  great  but  that  slight  ac- 
tions may  help  it,  and  may  be  so  done  as  to  help  it  much, 
most  especially  that  chief  of  all  purposes,  the  pleasing  of 
God.  Hence  George  Herbert : — 

*  Shairp,  Culture  and  Religion,  p.  61. 


On  Motive.  103 


"  A  servant  with  this  clause 
Makes  drudgery  divine  ; 
Who  sweeps  a  room,  as  lor  Thy  laws, 
Makes  that  and  the  action  fine." 

'  Therefore,  in  the  pressing  any  manner  of  acting,  we 
have  choice  of  two  separate  lines  of  argument :  one  based 
on  the  inherent  value  of  the  work,  which  is  often  small ; 
the  other  on  proofs  of  its  acceptableness,  so  far  as  it  goes, 
to  Him' who  is  the  origin  of  virtue.'*  Better  far  for  the 
student  that  he  be  a  disciple  of  George  Herbert  or  Fra 
Angelico,  both  in  humility  and  motive,  than  of  Salvator 
Rosa,  with  his  grand  effects  but  monstrously  impossible 
geology,  or  of  Gustave  Dore,  with  his  insinuating  and 
dangerous  exaggerations. 

179.  Regarding  this  last-named  artist  we  wish  not  to 
Jbe  misunderstood.  That  Gustave  Dore  is  a  remarkable 
genius  there  can  be  little  doubt.  His  creative  power  is 
wonderfully  prolific,  and  his  imaginative  faculties  are  mar- 
vellous. As  Dante's  exponent  he  stands  alone,  and  as  the 
illustrator  of  Don  Quixote  he  is  unrivalled.  We  do  not 
much  care,  even,  if  in  Elaine  a  female  figure  seven  or  eight 
feet  high  appears ;  the  error  does  not  dawn  on  us  at  once, 
and  in  many  cases  is  never  noticed.  Here  is  the  legitimate 
sphere  for  the  imagination,  which  has  its  laws,  and  we  are 
not  aware  that  he  often  goes  beyond  them.  But  this 
imaginative  faculty  is  just  what  entirely  unfits  him,  we 
think,  to  become  a  representer  of  facts,  and  it  is  for  this 
reason  we  protest  against  him  as  an  illustrator  of  the  Bible. 
*  Ruskin,  Seven  Lamps,  p.  5,  Introduction. 


104  On  Motive. 


Here  we  do  not  want  man's  imagination ;  we  want  facts, 
and  such  clear  statement  of  them  as  will  help  our  judg- 
ment to  the  realisation  of  the  truth.  There  is  more  help 
and  comfort  in  Holman  Hunt's  sketch  of  an  Eastern  work- 
shop, which  forms  the  frontispiece  to  Canon  Farrars 
Life  of  Christ,  than  in  all  the  dramatic  imaginings  that 
hold  a  thoughtless  public  all  a-stare  during  several  years  of 
London  exhibition  seasons. 

180.  We  may  as  well  explain  here  a  little  more  fully 
what  is  meant  by  motive.  It  is  generally  understood  that 
the  purpose  of  a  picture  is  in  some  way  to  teach,  instruct, 
or  enlighten,  and  in  this  way  painters  may  be  our  teachers. 
Let  us,  then,  for  a  moment  consider  what, is  done  by  two 
classes  of  men — taking  Holman  Hunt  as  representative  of 
the  true.  He  proposes  to  instruct  us  concerning  the  '  Scape- 
goat' in  Leviticus,  chap.  xvi.  An  ordinary  painter  of 
the  sixteenth  century  might  supply  himself  with  mate- 
rials from  his  own  country,  probably  not  unmixed  with 
anachronisms ;  and  n9t  a  few  nineteenth-century  artists 
would  be  content  Avith  such  materials  as  could  be  gathered 
in  a  tour  through  Switzerland,  or  the  Riviera — possibly 
visiting  a  friend's  shooting-box  in  Scotland  for  a  back- 
ground. Holman  Hunt,  however,  must  go  to  the  land 
where  the  scenes  about  which  he  is  to  instruct  us  were 
enacted  ;  and  not  only  so,  but  to  the  very  dreariest  of  the 
weary  scenes  of  that  waste  wilderness  below  the  Dead  Sea, 
that  not  only  his  eyes  may  see,  but  that  his  whole  soul 
may  be  imbued  with  the  sentiment  he  would  press  upon  us. 
What  was  the  result  ?  A  picture  of  which  Fashion,  in 


On  Motive.  105 


her  blindness,  for  once  spoke  the  truth,  though  she  could 
not  appreciate.  The  picture  was  ugly  ! — no  interest  in  it ! 
— the  goat  wretched ! — and  so  on.  How  could  such  a 
subject  be  otherwise,  and  yet  the  truth  ?  How  could  a 
wilderness  with  sin  in  it  be  otherwise  ? — and  should  not 
that  creature  look  wretched  that  is  represented  as  bearing 
a  nation's  sins  ? 

181.  When  Millais  exhibited  his  picture  of  l  An  Enemy 
Sowing  Tares '  in  the  Eoyal  Academy,  about  twelve  years 
ago,  it  was  hung  high,  and  people  said,    'What  an  ugly 
thing ! '      The    sower  looked  bad,   and  it  was  dark  and 
gloomy,  and  there  were  wretched-looking  reptiles  crawling 
about.     And  yet  how  could  the  picture  of  such  a  deed  of 
darkness  be  otherwise,  and  at  the  same  time  true  ? 

182.  If  pictures  are  to  read  to  us  lessons,  we  might 
inquire  what  lesson  are  we  to  learn  from  '  The  Otter-hunt,' 
by  Landseer,  or  'The  Boar-hunt,'  by  Schneider,  or  'The 
Bull-fight,'  by  Ward  ?    Grand  in  their  exhibition  of  artistic 
power,  but  what  of  their  teaching  ?    What  is  the  difference 
between  the  teaching  of  'The  Otter-hunt'  and  a  visit  to 
Hurlingham  on  a  fete  day  ?  or  between  that  of  a  boar-hunt 
and  a  place  at  a  pigeon-shooting  match  near  a  Lancashire 
town?    And  are  these  the  pictures  to  be  hanging  on  the 
walls  of  our  homes,  to  be  seen  by  our  children  ?    Surely,  in 
our  house  decoration  we  might  use  a  little  more  thought 
and  common  sense. 

Further,  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  in  an  illus- 
trated work  the  artist  or  illustrator  always  gets  the  atten- 
tion of  the  reader  before  the  author  does,  for  the  picture 


106  On  Motive. 


appeals  instantly  to  the  eye  on  the  opening  of  the  page, 
whilst  the  truth  which  the  author  presents  has  to  be  ob- 
tained from  the  type  by  a  much  more  laborious  process. 
How  important,  then,  that  painters  and  illustrators  should 
be  true  men  !  Many  people  look  at  illustrations,  but  do 
not  read  the  text ;  few  read  the  text  without  looking  at  the 
illustrations. 

183.  Returning,  then,  from  this  digression,  we  cannot 
too  strongly  urge  on  the  student  the  importance  of  ex- 
amining his  motives  in  pursuing  Art,  that  they  may  not 
be  either  thoughtless  or  selfish,  but  such  as  will  develop  in 
him  the  faculty  of  appreciating  that  which  is  true  and  of 
avoiding  that  which  is  false. 


'  |n  t{>t  arorn  Uta  Ibt  ©ah.' 


CHAPTEE    XX. 
ON  BEAUTY. 

184.  ' BEAUTY'  and  'goodness'  are  names  we  give 
to  that  which  approximately  satisfies  our  taste  or  our 
conscience.  Just  as  appetite  of  the  intellect  is  stayed  by 
truth,  so  our  aesthetic  and  moral  faculties  are  capable  of 
like  satisfaction  in  the  recognition  of  beauty  and  goodness. 
It  is  sometimes  said  that  that  which  is  beautiful  or  good 
to  one,  may  be  the  opposite  to  another.  This,  we  think,  is 
a  fallacy.  Truth  and  goodness  are  entities  quite  inde- 
pendent and  unchangeable ;  but  our  faculties  for  the 
appreciation  of  truth  and  goodness  may  be  untrained  or 
perverted,  or  they  may  be  cultivated  to  the  highest  point 
of  sensibility.  As  we  have  elsewhere  stated,  they  are 
capable  of  education,  and  they  suffer  by  neglect.  If  any 
object — such  as  a  vase,  for  instance — be  beautiful  or  ugly, 
it  is  so  independently  of  all  opinions,  for  it  is  a  matter  of 
fact  and  not  of  opinion.  We  cannot  justly  say  that  it  is 
a  matter  of  taste,  for  taste  may  be  good  or  bad,  and  cannot 
alter  the  fact ;  and  if  we  wish  to  ascertain  what  the  fact  is, 
it  must  be  by  the  gathering  together  of  evidences,  and 
the  exercis'e  of  a  sound  judgment  on  those  evidences. 
When  Mr.  Ruskin  says,  'Any  material  object  which  can 
give  us  pleasure  in  the  simple  contemplation  of  its  out- 

107 


108  On  Beauty. 

ward  qualities,  without  any  direct  and  definite  exertion 
of  the  intellect,  I  call  in  some  way,  or  in  some  degree, 
beautiful,'  we  cannot  but  think  that  very  much  depends 
on  the  '««' — that  is,  whether  we  (the  'us')  have  true  or 
pure  taste. 

185.  Dugald  Stewart  says,  'Notwithstanding  the  great 
variety  of  qualities — physical,  intellectual,  and  moral — to 
which  the  word  beauty  is  applicable,  I  believe  it  will  be 
admitted  that,  in  its  primitive  and  most  general  applica- 
tion, it  refers  to  objects  of  sight.' 

186.  Besides  beauty  of  form,  there  is  beauty  of  colour, 
of  composition,  of  light  and  shade,  and  of  expression  ;  all 

-of  which  are  referable  to  certain  principles.  The  various 
constituents  that  go  to  make  up  beauty  are  infinite,  but 
there  are  some  few  which  are  generally  present  in  any- 
thing we  call  beautiful,  and  are  briefly  referred  to  in 
various  parts  of  the  work,  especially  in  the  next  three 
chapters. 

'All  our  moral  feelings  are  so  interwoven  with  our 
intellectual  powers  that  we  cannot  affect  the  one  without 
in  some  degree  addressing  the  other ;  and  in  all  high 
ideas  of  beauty  it  is  more  than  probable  that  much  of  the 
pleasure  depends  on  delicate  and  untraceable  perceptions 
of  fitness,  propriety,  and  relation,  which  are  purely  in- 
tellectual. .  .  .  Ideas  of  beauty  are  amongst  the  noblest 
which  can  be  presented  to  the  human  mind,  invariably 
exalting  and  purifying  it  according  to  their  degree,  and 
it  would  appear  that  we  are  intended  by  the  Deity  to  be 
constantly  under  their  influence,  because  there  is  not  one 


On  Beauty. 


109 


single  object  in  nature  which  is  not  capable  o|  conveying 
them.'  * 

187.  To  a  right  and  full  enjoyment  of  beauty,  whether 
in  Nature  or  in  Art,  there  must  be  a  knowledge  of  the 
philosophy  of  Nature,  and  of  the  principles  of  Art.  But  to 
this  end  there  must  also  be  the  operation  of  the  feelings, 
made  sensitive  by  the  intelligent  practice  of  Art ;  thus  the 
mental  faculties,  the  feelings,  the  eye,  and  the  hand,  act 
in  concert. 

*  Ruskin,  Modern  Painters,  Vol.  I. 


CHAPTER    XXI. 

OH  FITNESS. 

188.  IN    a  perfect    sense  of    beauty    of    form,   fitness 
constitutes  an  essential  element ;  for  though  many  things 
may  in  themselves   be  beautiful,   yet  from  the  want  of 
fitness  in  their  application  they  may  become  at  least  nuga- 
tory. 

In  all  complete  works  there  must  be  a  sense  of  agree- 
ment and  suitability  of  parts,  not  only  in  their  individual 
forms,  but  in  their  kinds.  An  Italian  greyhound  is  a 
beautiful  creature,  but  would  be  quite  out  of  place  in  a 
stable ;  and  a  calf,  though  very  picturesque  in  a  lane, 
would  be  oddly  out  of  place  on  a  lawn. 

189.  We  must  not  forget,  however,  that  this  idea  of 
fitness  is  of  a  twofold  kind,  in  one  case  appealing  to  the 
senses,   in  another    to  the   intellectual    faculties  and  the 
judgment.      In  the  former  case  a  number  of  objects  may 
be  so  related  to  each  other,  as  to  give  the  idea  merely  of 
agreeableness,  like  sounds,   apart  from  all   function,  and 
give  pleasure ;  or,  an  object  not  essentially  beautiful  in 
itself  may  become  so  to  the  mind  by  the  recognition  of  its 
adaptation  to  perform  some  particular  function.     Take,  for 
instance,  the  hand  for  handling,  or  the  foot  for  walking  : 
if  we  are  acquainted  with  the  mechanical   appliances  of 
the  foot  in  walking,  we  are  charmed,  and  look  at  it,  apart 

110 


On  Fitness.  Ill 


from  its  form,  as  a  thing  of  beauty ;  and  in  proportion  as 
we  know  and  are  charmed  with'  Nature's  appliances  in  the 
human  foot,  so  shall  we  be  disgusted  with  and  intolerant 
of  the  utter  vileness  and  tyranny  of  fashion,  in  dictating 
to  a  world  of  reasonable  but  unreasoning  votaries,  heels 
two  inches  higher  than  the  Wise  Designer  saw  fit  to  make 
them. 

190.  The  principle  here  referred  to  will  apply  not 
only  to  architecture,  sculpture,  painting,  and  ornament,  but 
to  almost  everything  by  which  we  are  surrounded.  Thus 
it  will  be  seen,  then,  that  in  a  work  of  true  art  there  must 
be  a  fitness,  both  in  form  and  in  function,  of  the  various 
parts  composing  it,  which  must  precede  everything  else. 
The  walls  and  furniture  of  our  rooms,  the  floors  and  carpets 
on  which  we  tread,  the  crockery  and  silver  on  our  tables, 
the  ornaments  on  our  mantel-shelf,  and  even  the  very  fire- 
irons  themselves,  all  should  be  subject  to  this  principle. 
How  often  do  we  see  highly  elaborate  fenders  and  pokers 
— the  latter  so  heavy  and  ornate  that  a  deputy  has  to  be 
appointed,  which  is  sometimes,  in  irony,  called  the  'curate.' 
About  the  hearth  there  should  be  as  little  ornament  in 
'  relief  as  possible.  And  as  the  carpet  is  intended  as  a 
surface  to  be  walked  upon,  all  striking  patterns  on  it 
should  be  avoided.  The  principle  will  apply  continually, 
because  (as  will  be  shown  in  Chap.  XXVI. )  it  is  founded  in 
truth. 


CHAPTER    XXII. 

ON  VAEIETY. 

191.  VARIETY  in  Art,  as  in  Nature,  is  one  of  the  chief 
sources  of  beauty,  and  forms  one  of  the  trio  of  essential 
elements  in  its  production.  Like  every  other  essential 
quality  in  Art,  it  is  subject  to  laws  naturally  belonging 
to  it — for  without  obedience  to  law  there  can  be  neither 
beauty  nor  truth.  The  extent  of  its  operation  is  simply 
infinite,  and  infinity  is  a  characteristic  of  Nature.  No  two 
things,  from  a  blade  of  grass  upwards,  are  exactly  alike. 
Variety  seems  to  be  a  necessity  of  our  nature.  This  is 
well  shown  by  the  late  J.  D.  Harding,*  'by  supposing  a 
number  of  beautiful  women  to  be  seen  together,  and  that 
each  merited  the  appellation.  It  would  be  found,  on 
examination,  that,  however  great  the  number,  they  all 
varied ;  and  that  this  variety,  in  fact,  constituted  the 
aggregate  beauty  of  the  whole  number,  and  was  insepara- 
ble from  it.  Again,  supposing  we  could  select  one  from 
among  them,  who  by  universal  consent  was  admitted  to  be 
the  most  beautiful,  what  beholder  would  desire  that  some 
magician's  wand  should  make  the  rest  exactly  like  her  ? 
Who,  if  such  a  change  could  be  effected,  would  not  feel  a 
desire  to  return  to  that  variety  which  must  ever  be  the 
captivating  constituent  of  beauty,  both  in  the  individual 

*  Principles  and  Practice  of  Art. 

112 


On  Variety. 


113 


and  in  the  aggregate  ?  Without  the  one,  we  cannot  have 
the  other.  Were  beauty  always  to  take  the  same  form  and 
expression,  the  eye  and  the  mind  would  be  fatigued  by  its 
perpetual  recurrence.  But,  as  variety  is  given  to  beauty, 
and  is  inseparable  from  it,  the  eye  and  the  mind  are  excited 
and  gratified  by  fresh  and  unanticipated  combinations  of 
form  and  expression.' 

192.  Mr.   Harding  afterwards  proceeds  to  show,  in  a 


FIG.  75. 

palpable  manner,  that  variety  is  an  indispensable  consti- 
tuent of  beauty,  and  that  perfect  beauty  is  constituted  of 
infinite  variety,  thus  : — 'On  cutting  segments  of  the  circle 
of  different  sizes,  s  s  s  s,  we  shall  find  that  the  curvature 
of  the  arcs  is  precisely  the  same,  whatever  may  be  the 
difference  in  size ;  since,  from  the  construction  of  the 
circle,  the  circumference  is,  during  its  whole  circuit, 
equally  distant  from  the  centre,  and  consequently  all  the 

radii,  R  E  E  E,  are  of  equal  length,  and  the  curvature  is  in 
8  , 


114 


On  Variety. 


every  point  the  same.     This  form,  therefore,  cannot  be  the 
most  beautiful,  because  it  wants  variety. 

'  On  the  other  hand,  if  we  cut  segments  from  the  egg, 
s  s  s  s,  we  shall  find  that,  whether  their  chords  be  equal 
or  not,  their  curvature  and  assumed  radii,  R  R  R  R,  are 
unequal,  so  that  no  part  of  any  segment  would  repeat 
part  of  another,  or  of  itself  on  the  same  side ;  for  as  the 
curvature  of  these  segments  is  perpetually  changing, 
v 


they  could  not  be  represented  by  radii  such  as  I  have 
been  here  obliged  to  place  in  order  to  make  myself  un- 
derstood. Here,  then,  is  greater  variety,  and  therefore 
more  beauty.  This,  so  far,  is  only  offering  the  test  to 
the  eye,  or  the  limited  power  of  the  compasses ;  but  if, 
instead  of  this,  we  take  a  mental  view,  we  shall  feel 
yet  more  thoroughly  conscious  of  the  sameness  of  curva- 
ture in  the  sphere,  and  of  the  infinite  variety  which 


On  Variet'1. 


115 


the  ovoid,  or  egg  form,  admits  of.  If  we  should  conceive 
segments  infinite  in  number  to  be  cut  from,  a  sphere,  we 
should  still  have  the  same  curves  ever  occurring ;  but 
should  we  conceive  an  egg  so  cut,  the  curvature  and  radii 
of  the  segments  would  be  of  infinite  variety,  and  conse- 
quently, of  the  two,  this  is  the  most  beautiful  form.'  He 
then  demonstrates  how  the  most  beautiful  of  Nature's 
works,  the  human  form,  is  made  up  almost  entirely  of 
ovoid  forms. 

193.  To  get  a  correct  idea  of  the  infinity  of  this  beauti- 


FIG.  76  b. 

ful  figure,  which  combines  in  one  so  much  variety  with  the 
law  of  symmetry,  we  must  not  confine  our  observations  to 
one  form  or  proportion  of  the  ovoid.  It  will  be  evident, 
when  we  consider  it  mathematically,  or  when  we  attempt  to 
construct  it,  that  as  the  longitudinal  and  transverse  diame- 
ters can  be  varied  in  every  possible  relation,  so  we  may 
obtain,  not  only  one  ovoid  with  constantly  varying  curva- 
ture, but  an  infinite  variety  of  ovoids,  from  the  very  elon- 
gated (Fig.  76  a)  to  the  very  compressed  (Fig.  76  J),  each 
having  the  law  of  infinity  stamped  upon  it. 


116  On  Variety. 

Ovoids  of  various  proportions  may  be  made  by  an 
instrument  specially  adapted  for  that  purpose ;  but 
they  may  also  be  roughly  made  as  follows  (Fig.  77): — 
Draw  any  line,  c  D,  and  bisect  it  as  with 
the  line  A  B.  Now  fix  pins  at  the  points, 
A  B  c  D,  and  tie  a  string  tightly  round  them. 
Remove  the  pin  at  c,  and  the  string  will  lie 
loosely  about  the  three  remaining  pins,  A  B  D. 
If  a  pencil  be  now  introduced  within  the 
string,  so  as  to  restore  it  to  its  original  ten- 
sion, and  be  carried  round  so  as  to  keep  it 
always  equally  stretched,  it  will  trace  the 
FIG.  77.  ovoid,  or  composite  ellipse. 
It  will  be  evident  that  the  shape  of  the  ovoid  will 
depend  on  the  relation  to  each  other  of  the  two  isosceles 
triangles,  CAD  and  c  B  D.  If  the  angles,  CAD,  for  in- 
stance, be,  say  108°,  and  c  B  D  27°,  we  shall  Have  a  form 
suited  to  the  human  face  ;  but  if  we  make  CAD,  say  120°, 
and  c  B  D  15°,  we  shall  have  a  shape  suited  to  a  tall  vase  or 
jar,  and  vice  versa. 

The  student  is  recommended  to  work  out  for  himself 
this  simple  plan  for  constructing  an  ovoid. 

194.  It  is  the  judicious  combination  of  lines  giving 
infinite  variety  that  has  caused  so  many  Greek  forms, 
especially  vases,  to  remain  unsurpassed  during  all  the  Art 
efforts  of  2300  years. 

It  would  occupy  too  much  space  in  a  work  of  this  kind 
to  follow  this  element  of  variety  throughout  its  almost 
endless  applications,  not  only  in  ornamental  art,  but  also  in 


On  Variety. 


117 


architecture,  sculpture,  and  painting.  It  applies  equally 
to  the  form  of  a  leaf  or  to  the  shapes  and  modelling  of  a 
mountain — not  only  to  shapes,  but  to  the  quantities  and 
directions  of  shapes,  and  in  composition  (as  in  the  Rhine 
boats  below),  and  as  we  shall  presently  find,  it  is  in  constant 
requisition. 


CHAPTER    XXIII. 

ON  UNITY. 

tf  the  consideration  of  the  various  elements,  the 
combinations  of  which  are  necessary  to  secure  beauty  in  a 
work  of  Art,  it  will  be  found  that  they  almost  inevitably 
overlap  or  impinge  on  each  other  to  some  extent. 

Variety  has  been  spoken  of  as  productive  of  beauty ; 
but  this  variety  must  not  run  riot,  and  be  introduced 
merely  for  its  own  sake,  but  under  certain  restrictions  and 
relationships,  so  as  to  allow — or,  perhaps,  rather  to  suggest 
— the  idea  of  Unity. 

This  idea  of  Unity,  or  oneness,  which  is  the  subordi- 
nation of  all  the  parts  to  the  completeness  of  the  whole, 
is  as  essential  in  a  work  of  pictorial  art  as  in  a  piece  of 
music.  We  find  it,  like  a  cord,  running  through  and 
tying  together  all  nature;  and  it  seems  to  have  been  a 
divine  idea  in  the  creation  of  all  things,  binding  organic 
forms,  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  in  one  complete 
cycle;  and  although  the  completeness  of  any  individual 
natural  form  may  in  itself  convey  this  idea  of  unity,  it  is 
only  one  of  an  infinity  of  individuals,  the  whole  of  which 
are  governed  by  this  same  idea.  And  thus  it  is  that  in 
contemplating  any  object,  we  do  so  with  the  conviction 
that  the  designer  of  this  one  object  was  also  the  designer 
of  the  whole  visible  universe.  Unity,  then,  being  that 

118 


On  Unity.  119 

which  connects  all  individuals  into  one  whole,  is  the  ele- 
ment which  expresses  and  produces  completeness.* 

196.  In  Art,  as  in  morals,  the  mind  may  enjoy  for  a 
time,  but  cannot  obtain  rest  in  the  incomplete  or  in  the 
imperfect,  and  the  higher  the  work,  the  more  strongly  is 
the  necessity  of  completeness  felt :    it  is  like  a  beautiful 
piece  of  music  performed  with  the  omission  of  a  few  notes 
at  the  beginning  and  ending  of  it. 

197.  A  sketch  may  be  incomplete,  but  the  mind,  taking 
cognisance  of  the  fact  that  it  does  not  aim  at  or  pretend  to 
completeness,  enjoys  it  as  a  fragment,  or  as  a  part  only  of 
some  whole. 

198.  The  idea  of  unity  has  nothing  to  do  with  unifor- 
mity, but  is  an  aggregation  of  differences  whicji  form  one 
whole. 

*  There  are  some  extraordinary  parallelisms  and  relationships  re- 
cently discovered  between  sound  and  form  confirming  this  idea,  but 
they  are  scarcely  suited  for  an  elementary  work  of  this  nature. 


CHAPTER   XXIV. 

ON  COMPOSITION, 

199.  'COMPOSITION  may  be  defined  to  be  such  a  collo- 
cation of  the  several  objects  in  a  work  of  Art,  both  rela- 
tively to  each  other,  and  with  respect  to  the  whole,  that 
each  and  all  may  most  efficiently  contribute  to  the  perfec- 
tion of  the  general  design.'    It  may  also  be  defined  as  the 
help  given  by  everything  in  the  picture  to  everything  else  to 
make  a  whole. 

Composition  brings  to  us  a  higher  degree  of  beauty, 
and  therefore  of  satisfaction,  by  the  association  of  objects 
in  such  a  combination  as  will  most  agreeably  and  most 
powerfully  affect  us  ;  but  in  every  case  the  objects  must 
be  so  arranged  as  to  appear  perfectly  natural,  both  with 
reference  to  the  things  introduced,  and  to  the  places  they 
severally  occupy  in  the  group. 

200.  We  will  endeavour  to  illustrate  this  in  a  familiar 
manner.      Let  us  empty   on  to  the  table  before  us  the 
contents  of  a  general  and  promiscuous  pocket.     We  may 
have  something  like  what  is  given  in  the  rough  sketch 
(Fig.   78),— several   keys,  including  a  railway  key  and  a 
watch  key,  a  knife,  a  railway  pass-book,  a  piece  of  lead 
pencil,  and  several  coins.     Now  we  at  once  find  that  we 
have  more  objects  of  the  same  kind  than  are  necessary 
for  a  group,  and  so  we  proceed   to  eliminate  by  taking 

120 


On  Composition. 


121 


away  several  coins  (which  are  repetitions  of  the  same 
form),  and  several  keys.  The  objects  for  our  group  now 
feel  more  under  control.  But  we  inquire,  What  natural 
relation  exists  among  them  ?  None,  except  perhaps 
between  the  knife,  pencil,  and  book ;  and  so  we  remove 
the  coins  and  the  keys.  We  further  discover  that  as  the 
knife  happens  to  be  a  fruit  knife  (silver),  it  bears  no 
relation  to  the  pencil,  or  book ;  nor,  finally,  the  pencil 
to  the  '  Pass ; '  and  so  these  also  must  be  eliminated.  In 


FIG.  78. 

fact,  out  of  the  whole  of  the  dozen  or  more  articles,  we 
cannot  form  a  natural  and  consistent  group. 

201.  We  will  try  again,  however,  beginning  with  a 
single  object,  say  a  piece  of  ordinary  lead  pencil,  and 
inquire  what  will  naturally  go  well  with  this.  A  knife, 
or  a  piece  of  eraser,  or  a  pocket-book, — any  or  all  of  these ; 
and  we  try  to  arrange  them  agreeably :  but  we  find,  as 
they  lie  flatly  on  the  table,  we  have  no  upright  object 
with  which  to  vary  the  group,  and  so  we  add,  say,  a 
tumbler  with  water  in  it.  But  as  this  tumbler  bears  no 
relation  to  the  other  objects,  we  may  instantly,  by  intro- 


122 


On  Composition. 


ducing  a  paint-brush  into  the  group,  suggest  a  relationship, 
and  especially  if  we  show  also  a  bottle  of  Chinese  white. 

We  have  now  materials  for  our  proposed  composition 
which  bear  some  relation  to  each  other,  and  we  will  proceed 
to  arrange  them. 


FIG.  79. 


They  may,  perchance,  be  as  in  Fig.  79 ;  but  though 
this  may  be  said  to  be  natural,  or  according  to  Nature, 
it  will  not  satisfy  the  necessities  of  Art.  We  had  better 


Fro.  80. 

begin  by  letting  the  principal  object  occupy  the  chief 
place,  near  the  centre,  and  then  arrange  the  other  objects 
about  it  so  as  to  secure  both  variety  and  unity.  We  have 
done  so  in  Fig.  80,  with  a  satisfactory  result. 


On  Composition. 


123 


202.  The  relation  of  the  parts  of  a  composition  to  each 
other,  and  to  the  whole,  may,  perhaps,  be  better  under- 


\ 


FIG.  82.  Fro.  83.  FIG.  84. 

stood  by  considering  them  as  lines  only.  If  we  place  two 
or  more  lines  parallel  to  each  other,  we  shall  not  feel  that 
they  bear  any  real  relation.  If  we  place 
them  as  in  Fig.  81,  we  shall  feel  that  they 
more  oppose  than  combine ; 
and  by  placing  one  line  per- 
pendicular to  another  we  have 
them  in  strongest  contrast,  as 
in  Fig.  82;  whilst  if  we  place 
them  as  in  Figs.  83  and  84, 
they  compose  towards  each 
other;  and  thus  combining, 
we  may  go  on  till  we  get  to 
Fig.  85  (our  Crocus),  one  of 
the  most  beautiful,  simple 

flowers  we  have,   which  conveys  the  idea  of 
FIG.  85. 

variety  with  unity,  and  in  some  degree  of 
symmetry  also,  though  not  absolute,  as  in  Fig.  86.  But 
how,  it  may  be  asked,  will  this  apply  to  landscape  ? 


FIG.  86. 


124 


On  Composition^ 


FIG.  89. 


Fia.  90. 

Let  Figs.  83  «nd  84  bo  placed  horizontally,  as  in  Figs.  87 
and  88,  and  we  have  at  once  the  general  direction 
of  the  lines  forming  the  foundation  of  Figs.  89  and  90, 


On  Composition. 


125 


&&\\    .  J&-J. 


FIG.  92. 


12G 


On  Composition. 


FIG.  93. 


FIG.  94 


FIG.  95. 


On  Composition. 


127 


and  also  for  Fig.  91.  If  we  analyse  the  two  following 
examples  (Figs.  92  and  93),  we  shall  find  that  they 
resolve  themselves  into  the  simple  elementary  lines  of 


FIG.  96. 


FIG.  97. 

Figs.  94  and  95.  It  is  by  such  means  that  the  mind 
may  often  suggest  what  the  feelings  require,  but  can- 
not discover  ;  for  the  mind  and  the  feelings  should  act 
in  concert  in  the  production  of  a  work  of  Art  as  well  as 
in  its  analvsis. 


128 


On  Composition. 


203.  There  are  some  qualities  and  characteristics 
which  are  more  readily  expressible  by  lines  and  by  light 
and  shade  than  others.  The  sentiment  produced  by  these 
is  sometimes  easily  traced  to  its  exact  source.  To  some 
extent  the  ideas  of  repetition  and  monotony  associate 
themselves  with  that  of  stillness,  wh'ich  is  allied  to  repose  ; 
and  stillness  is  a  condition  of  things  with  which  we  may 
become  quite  familiar — a  condition  in  which  Nature  is 


FIG.  98. 

most  easily  represented  by  a  tone  of  shade,  by  repetition 
of  lines,  and  by  certain  positions  of  lines,  as  in  the  rough 
sketch  (Fig.  9G)  ;  whilst  contrast  of  light  and  dark,  and 
opposition  of  lines,  as  in  Fig.  97,  give  rise  to  a  contrary 
feeling. 

204.  If  we  take  any  rectangular  parallelogram  as  our 
picture,  and  divide  it  into  equal  parts,  as  in  Fig.  98,  the 
intersection  will  mark  the  part  of  the  picture  space  which 
is  the  weakest  place  for  the  principal  object  of  a  pictorial 
composition,  for  it  divides  the  picture  into  two  equal 


On  Composition. 


129 


halves.  In  the  case  of  merely  ornamental  design,  where 
exact  symmetry  is  an  important  constituent,  this  of  course 
does  not  apply. 

By  dividing  the  parallelogram  into  thirds  or  fifths,  we 
shall  obtain  what  may  be  called  the  strong  positions  of  the 
picture  ;  but  if  some  of  these  parts  or  positions  on  one  side 
are  occupied  with  points  of  interest,  the  corresponding  parts 
on  the  other  side  become  neutralised  for  any  equally  impor- 
tant feature  of  interest. 

205.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  various  methods  of 
composition,  especially  in  landscape  Art,  have  for  their 
aim  the  introduction  of  pleasing,  or  at  least  mentally 
satisfactory  qualities,  without  disturbing  what  we  might 
almost  call  the  idiosyncrasies  of  Nature.  For  rules  and 
helps  we  should  ever  study,  not  so  much  the  customs  of 
men,  as  the  works  of  Nature  herself.  Whichever  way  we 
look,  we  always  find  in  her  the  assertion  of  three  grand 
laws, — Fitness,  Variety,  and  Unity. 


CHAPTER    XXV. 

ON  LIGHT  AND  SHADE  AS  APPLIED  TO  GROUPS  OF  OBJECTS  AND 
TO  PICTURES. 

206.  IN    Chapter  VIII.   the    remarks  on    'light    and 
shade '  had  reference  only  to  individual  objects :   we  are 
now  to  see  how  light  and  shade  operate  on  objects,  in-, 
dividually  or  grouped,  when  considered  in  relation  to  the 
whole  picture.     This  can  only  be  done  here  in  a  very 
limited  manner ;  fully  to  show  its  importance  would  require 
many  costly  plates. 

207.  As  the  purpose  of  light  and  shade  in  the  repre- 
sentation of  an  object  is  to  give  the  idea  of  projection, 
and  to  show  the  space  it  occupies,  so  the  purpose  of  light 
and  shade,  when  applied  to  a  picture,  is  to  fill  it  with 
space,  and  to  locate,  to  conceal,  or  to  reveal,  the  various 
objects  it  may  contain,  whether  houses  or  trees,  figures  or 
mountains,  and  lead  the  mind  of  the  spectator  to  consider 
chiefly  those  parts  of  the  work  that  the  artist  wishes  him 
to  see. 

208.  If  the  student  will,  as  before,  make  simple  ex- 
periments, ho  may  more  easily  understand  some  important 
truths  in  connexion  with  the  subject. 

Let  him,  on  a  stout  piece  of  cartridge  or  of  grey 
paper,  make  two  accurate  but  delicate  outlines  in  ink  of 
any  clearly  defined  subject,  such  as  Fig.  9G,  or  Fig.  97, 

130 


On  Liglit  and  Shade.  131 

only  considerably  larger.  "With  a  piece  of  charcoal,*  or  a 
pencil  that  will  easily  rub  out,  he  may  now  treat  the  subject 
under  different  aspects,  and  then  compare  them  with  each 
other  ;  his  feelings  will  soon  inform  him  which  is  the  most 
agreeable  treatment,  and  his  intellect  and  judgment  will 
furnish  him  with  the  reasons  why  it  is  so. 

In  attempting  such  exercises  he  must  consider  the 
position  and  kind  of  light  that  is  to  illumine  his  picture, 
its  effect  on  the  large  masses,  the  local  colour  of  the 
various  parts ;  and  when  these  considerations  have  been 
attended  to,  he  may  greatly  modify  and  complete  the 
whole  by  the  introduction  of  accidental  shadows  of  various 
shapes  and  intensities. 

When  these  experiments  have  been  made  with  a  few 
simple  subjects,  those  of  a  more  extensive  and  intricate  kind 
may  be  attempted  :  for  instance,  such  as  Figs.  91  and  93.  f 

209.  It  is  not  unfrequently  the  case  that  when  an 
artist  has  determined  to  paint  a  particular  subject  from 
Nature,  he  has  to  commence  it  under  very  unfavourable 
circumstances  of  light  and  dark ;  but  he  is  ever  watchful 
for  any  happy  moment  when  the  scene  may  be  lit  up  by 
some  bright  gleam  of  light  which  may  instantly  transform 
it  from  the  commonplaceness  of  a  dull  day  into  a  beautiful 
picture. 

This  instantaneous  '  effect '  he  rapidly  secures  (perhaps 

*  Charcoal  must  be  dusted  off  the  paper,  not  rubbed. 

f  If  grey  or  tinted  paper  be  used-,  the  light  parts  of  the  sky,  and  the 
brightest  parts  of  near  and  very  light  objects,  may  be  put  in  with  a 
piece  of  extra  soft  white  chalk,  or  with  Chinese  white. 


132  On  Liglit  and  Shade. 

only  on  brown  paper  with  charcoal  and  soft  white  chalk), 
and  by  it  he  is  assisted  in  completing  his  work,  by  adding 
to  beautiful  forms  and  accurate  drawing  the  charms  of 
ever-changeful  lights  and  shadows. 

210.  And  now  let  the  student,  in  imagination,  climb, 
on  this  fine  April  morning,  to  the  top  of  some  hill,  and 
watch  the  marvellous  effect  of  the  cloud  shadows  as  they 
travel    over    hill    and    down  dale,    concealing,   revealing, 
gladdening,  saddening ;   our  spirits  going  up  or  down  as 
one  moment  we  stand  in   the  bright  light,    and  in   the 
next  in  deep  shade — a  picture  of  our  human  lives.     The 
winding  stream,  the  rustic  bridge  crossing  it,  the  woody 
hill-side,  the  fortress-like  rock,  and  the  hills  in  the  distance  ; 
these  are  the  features  that  the  mind  loves  to  dwell  upon 
and  the  memory  to  recall,  as  the  clouds  cast  their  fleeting 
shadows  across  the  scene  alternately  bright  in  light,  or  fall- 
ing into  shade  to  be  revealed  anew. 

These  accidental  cloud  shadows  are  a  most  important 
means  in  the  hands  of  a  painter  for  expressing  space  and 
light,  and  for  inducing  the  eye  and  mind  to  dwell  on  what- 
ever is  most  interesting. 

211.  If  the  student,  with  these  thoughts  in  his  memory, 
will  look  over  a  work  like  Turner's  Rivers  of  France,  his 
Harbours  of  England,  or  the  Liber  Studiorum ;   or  go 
through   an  exhibition  of  old    (English)    masters'   works, 
especially  of  water-colour  drawings  by  such   men  as  De 
Wint,  Varley,  Barrett,  Cox,   Copley  Fielding,  and  Hard- 
ing, he  will  have  a  mass  of  evidence  that  will  convince 
him  of    the  grand    power  which    these  accidental  cloud 


On  Liglit  and  SJiade.  133 

shadows  place  within  the  reach  of  artists  for  the  expres- 
sion of  space,  light,  and  beauty. 

212.  These    accidental    shadows  must    not    appear    in 
spots,  or  be  clearly  visible  throughout  their  entire  forms, 
but  should  usually  run    continuously  from  side   to  side 
of  the  picture,    as  they  generally   do   in    nature.     Being 
irregular  in  form,    and    passing  over    irregular    surfaces, 
their  exact  shapes  cannot  be  traced ;  but  being  subject  to 
that  foreshortening  which    all   retiring  surfaces    show,— 
whether  a  table- top,  a  room,  or  a  vast  landscape, — they  will 
almost  invariably  appear  to  extend  from  side  to  side  of  the 
picture,  as  in  Fig.  99,  and  not  into  it. 

213.  As  illustrations  of  what  we   mean  by  the  distri- 
bution of  light  and  shade  in  a  picture,  let  us  consider  the 
two  Figs.  100  and  101.     In  the  former,  the  upper  and  more 
interesting  part  of  the  building  is  left  light,   whilst  the 
other  part  becomes  darker  as  it  gets  lower,  and  ultimately 
blends  with  the  dark  shadow  on  the  ground,  the  nearer 
part  of  which  is  in  strong  light.     To  prevent  the  mono- 
tony of  so  large  a  mass  of  dark,  a  figure  is  introduced,  the 
white  and  black  dress  of  which  prevents  the  dark  shade 
on  the  building  from  looking  heavy.     But  to  make  this 
more   strongly  felt,    let    the  student  with    a  soft    pencil 
shade  over  the  light  parts  of  the  building,  the  figure,  and 
the  foreground, — he  will  instantly  perceive  that  all  space 
and  light  are  destroyed, — in    fact,    that  the    drawing  is 
spoilt.     It  can  be  made  right  again  by  cleaning  with  a 
piece  of  bread. 

214  Now  let  us  take  the  second  one.     In  this  subject 


I 


136 


On  Li glit  and  SJiade. 


we  have  at  once  such  elements  of  the  picturesque  as  would, 
independently  of  well-arranged  light  and  shade,  be  interest- 


ing ;  a  lane,  fine  aged  trees,  old  railings,  a  clear  sky,  and  a 
church  spire.  Moreover,  these  features  are  so  combined  as 
to  make  the  '  lines '  of  the  picture  harmonious  and  agree- 


On  Light  and  Shade. 


13? 


able.  A  dark  cloud  shadoAv  is  thrown  over  the  trees  in  the 
middle  distance,  and  passes  across  the  field  behind  the  old 
railings  and  the  nearer  trees  on  the  left,  causing  them  to  be 
much  more  clearly  visible.  Now  let  the  student  pass  a 
little  white  chalk  over  all  the  dark  parts  of  the 'drawing, 
and  shade  over  the  light  parts  with  a  pencil,  so  as  to  make 
all  equally  dark,  and  he  will  again  feel  that  all  space  and 
light  are  gone,  and  the  work  ruined. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  purpose  of  light  and  shade, 
as  applied  to  a  picture,  is  but  an  advanced  stage  of  its  appli- 
cation to  an  object ;  it  is  the  means  by  which  the  artist  gets 
rid  of  the  idea  of  the  flat  surface  of  his  paper  or  canvas, 
and  invests  it  with  such  ideas  of  Nature  as  have  been 
mentioned. 


CHAPTER    XXVI. 

LAWS  OF  NATURE,  AND  THEIR  APPLICATION  AS  PRINCIPLES 
OF  ART, 

215.  '  PEINCIPLES    in  Art    are   those    primary  gener- 
alised   truths,   founded    on     or    deduced    from    universal 
laws,  which  lead  not  only  to  fts  successful  practice,  but 
to  a  more  complete  and  just  appreciation  both  of  Nature 
and  Art.' 

'  Principles  make  us  more  susceptible  of  the  beauty  of 
Nature,  and  the  power  of  Art  in  representing  her ;  of 
what  is  essential  to  beauty,  whether  developed  in  the 
more  noble  productions  of  the  pencil,  or  in  all  the 
varied  objects,  useful  or  ornamental,  with  which  we  are 
surrounded.' 

216.  As  these  laws  of  Nature  are  perfect,  and  as  from 
these  our  principles  are  deduced,  we  adopt  a  true  standard 
by  which  to  test  Art  works,  quite  independent  of  fashion 
or  the  dictum  of  ignorance.     The  laws  of  material  beauty 
can   only  be  discovered  by  determining  the  laws  of  the 
Divine  mind  in  the  fact  of  creating,  or  by  a  study  of  the 
manifestation  of  those  Divine  operations  in  what  we  call 
Nature. 

We  will  imagine  a  case  in  illustration  of  what  has  just 
been  said,  by  supposing  that  we  wish  to  design  any  simple 
object,  say  a  candlestick ;  and  to  make  our  work  of  design- 

138 


Laws  of  Nature. 


139 


ing  quite  simple  and  clear,  we  must  first  enunciate  a  few 
laws  which  we  invariably  find  in  Nature,  and  then  apply 
them  to  our  work.  r 

1st.  It  is  a  law  of  Nature  that  everything  intended  for 
service  has  a  certain  size  and  character  defined  for  it  accord- 
ing to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  destined. 

2nd.  It  is  a  law  of  Nature  that,  in  things  of  use,  orna- 
ment is  an  addition,  and  secondary  to  utility — never  a  prin- 
cipal or  chief. 


FIG.  103. 


3rd.  Natural  ornament  is  always  in  harmony  with  the 
thing  to  which  it  is  applied. 

Now,  we  have  here  three  laws  which  will  to  some 
extent  guide  us  in  the  designing  and  ornamenting  of 
our  candlestick.  First,  we  require  a  socket  to  hold  the 
candle,  and  a  base,  that  it  may  stand  safely,  as  in 
Tig.  102 ;  but  as  we  may  wish  to  move  it,  we  must 
have  convenience  for  doing  so,  and  we  add  a  handle 
accordingly  (Fig.  103)  ;  or  we  may  wish  the  light  to  b3 
held  well  up,  in  which  case  we  lengthen  the  shaft,  and  so 
shape  the  top  of  it  as  to  protect  it  from  grease  or  running 
wax,  and  as  we  have  now  a  shaft  to  take  hold  of,  Ave  do 


140 


Laws  of  Nature. 


not  require  a  handle  (Fig.  104)  ;  but  if  it  is  intended  to 
be  carried  about,  we  had  better  add  a  screen,  as  in  Fig.  105. 
We  have  thus  conformed  to  this  first  law  of  Fitness,  and 
now  that  our  candlestick  will  do  its  work  well,  we  may 
proceed  to  add  that  by  Avhich  it  will  do  it  gracefully  also, 
viz.  ornament.  Before  we  can  do  this  safely,  however,  we 
must  consider  the  material  of  which  the  candlestick  is  to 


FIG.  104. 


FIG.  105. 


be  made,  whether  of  metal,  such  as  silver,  or  of  clay,  such 
as  china,  as  a  design  suitable  for  the  one  may  be  quite 
wrong  for  the  other.  In  the  former  material  we  may 
add  much  to  the  lightness  and  elegance  by  varying  the 
thickness  of  the  shaft  and  the  shape  of  the  base,  as  in  the 
rough  sketch  (Fig.  106) ;  but  this  would  be  quite  wrong 
if  produced  in  china — a  material  so  easily  broken.  On 


Laws  of  Nature 


141 


neither  material  should  there  be  such  deeply  incised  or 
highly  'relieved'  work  as  would  interfere  with  the 
cleaning  of  it  from  dust,  wax,  or  grease.  The  most  suit- 
able treatment  for  the  china  candlestick  would  be  a 
surface  ornament,  such  as  paint  or  gold,  quite  flat. 

Here,  then,  are  principles  of 
Art  legitimately  deduced  from 
the  laws  of  Nature,  which  should 
guide  us,  not  only  in  designing 
a  thing  in  common  use,  but  in 
judging  correctly  of  that  which  is 
already  designed. 

217.  We  will  take  another 
simple  object  of  every-day  life  — 
a  tea-cup.  Our  first  inquiry  ought 
to  be,  What  shape  of  vessel  is 
best  adapted  for  drinking  from  ? 
Certainly  not  one  like  Fig.  107 ; 
nor  wide  and  shallow  like  a  saucer, 
which  may  be  suitable  for  cooling 
liquids  in,  or  evaporating  them, 
but  not  for  drinking  from.  A 
shape  like  Fig.  108  would  be 

much  better;  moreover,  it  is  agreeable  in  form,  for  we 
have  slanted  the  sides,  and  affixed  a  handle  convenient  for 
taking  hold  of.  Suppose  the  design  is  for  a  child's  cup, 
this  shape  is  not  well  adapted,  as  it  might  be  easily 
upset ;  so  we  will  simply  invert  it,  make  the  handle  a 
little  larger,  affixing  it  a  little  lower  on  the  side,  that 


FIG.  106. 


142 


Laws  of  Nature. 


the  cup  may  be  more  easily  lifted  and  balanced  without 
danger  of  upsetting  (Fig.  109).  In  both  cases  the  forms 
of  our  tea-cups  must  be  admitted  to  be  right,  and  we  may 
proceed  to  ornament. 


FIG.  107. 


FIG.  108. 


FIG.  ioa. 


218.  But  here,  again,  we  are  bound  by  the  nature  of 
the  subject  to  avoid  highly  'relieved'  ornament,  and  to 
adhere  to  that  which  is  flat,  such  as  painting  and  gilding. 

As  to  the  kind  of  painting  most  proper  for  such 
articles  as  tea  or  dinner  services,  we  can  only  here  state 
in  general  terms  that  close  imitations  of  Nature,  such  as 
landscapes,  flowers,  fruits,  &c.,  are  undesirable;  and  that 
simple  geometric  designs  and  conventional  work  are  most 
satisfactory.  The  general  colour  will  depend  much  on 
the  surroundings,  but  white  and  gold  are  always  safe,  and 


Laws  of  Nature.  143 

generally  the  primary  colours,  in  small  quantities,  may  be 
admitted;  but  much  strong  red,  especially  on  dinner 
services,  is  decidedly  out  of  place. 

219.  The  application   of    the  general    principles  here 
named  is  endless, — furniture,  such  as  fire-irons  and  fender, 
carpets,    chairs,    tables,    wall    decoration, — everything,    in 
fact,   to  the  architecture  of    the    house  itself,   must   be 
amenable  to  these  laws ;  because  they  are  not  founded  on 
man's  knowledge,  but  on  the  laws  of  God's  works,  and  on 
man's  nature. 

220.  It  may,  however,  be  said  by  some,  that  all  this  is 
a  matter  of  taste  and  feeling.     Granted,   but  as  there  ^s 
false  taste  as  well  as  true  (see  Chapter  XVII.,  on  'Taste'), 
it  becomes  of  paramount  importance  that  we  should  make 
ourselves  acquainted  with  those  principles  on  which  true 
taste  depends.     The  fact  remains  that  a  thing  is  right,  or 
is  wrong,    whatever  our  taste  and  our  opinions   may  be 
in  regard  to-  it ;  in  either  case  it  will  be  right  or  wrong 
for  some  reason,  and  in  either  case  the  laws  of  Nature  must 
be  followed  or  violated. 

221.  '  Principles,  then,  whether  they  relate  to  archi- 
tecture, painting,  sculpture,  or  design,  must  be  known,  in 
order  that  the  eye  may  not  become  accustomed  to  admire 
or  acquiesce  in  what  is  wrong,  but  be  taught  to  discover 
and  correct  it,  and  in  new  applications  of  truth  to  develope 
newer  and  higher  manifestations  of  ^beauty.     To  illustrate 
this,  let  us  suppose  a  person  little  skilled  in  Art  to  have 
produced   something  in  which,  from  his  want  of  know- 
ledge, his  eye  detects  no  fault ;  and  that  he  takes  it  to 


144  Laws  of  Nature. 

some  accomplished  artist,  who,  instantly  perceiving  its 
defects,  informs  him  of  the  principles  he  has  violated,  and 
thus  makes  him  sensible  of  the  faults  he  has  committed, 
and  tells  him  how  they  may  be  remedied  in  his  present 
performance,  or  avoided  in  future.  The  consequence  is 
that  the  production  which  but  a  few  minutes  before  was 
viewed  with  complacency,  and  perhaps  pride,  is  now  found 
to  possess  so  many  faults,  that  instead  of  affording  satis- 
faction, it  annoys  and  displeases.  To  what  is  the  change 
to  be  ascribed  ?  Not  to  any  alteration  in  the  sight,  but 
to  the  fact  that  the  eye,  looking  through  the  medium  of 
th^G  mind,  now  in  possession  of  the  truth,  can  no  longer  be 
satisfied  with  what  the  reason  disapproves  of.  Every 
effort  is  consequently  made  to  satisfy  the  mind  and  the 
feelings,  now  become  more  acute  and  more  sensitive,  by 
closely  adhering  to  that  truth,  which  is  felt  to  be  so  power- 
ful and  so  essential.' 

222.  We  are  '  prone  to  rely  on  our  feelings  alone ; 
but  as  these  are  extremely  liable  to  be  excited  by  mere 
inconsiderate  impulse,  it  is  necessary  that  they  should  be 
controlled,  regulated,  corrected,  and  strengthened,  by  the 
judgment ;  and  the  judgment  can  only  be  in  a  condition  to 
decide  correctly,  when  it  is  rendered  independent  of  the 
bias  of  prejudice  or  fashion,  by  a  knowledge  of  the  true 
principles  of  Nature  and  Art.' 


CHAPTER    XXVII. 

SKETCH,  STUDY,  PIOTUEE. 

223.  IT  might  be  thought  unnecessary  to  define  for  the 
student  such  terms  as  stand  at  the  head  of  this  brief  chap- 
ter ;  but  there  is  often  a  considerable  confusion  arising  from 
the  want  of  clearly  defined  terms,  especially  in  the  use  of 
technical  language. 

224.  The  original  meaning  of  the  word  '  Sketch '  may 
be  gathered  from  its  Latin   root,  together  with   its  syno- 
nyms in  other  languages.     The  primary  sense  of  the  verb  is 
to  throw  off,  or  shoot,  and  in  this  sense  it  may  be  used  in 
Art — the  first  ideas  of  a  work  hastily  thrown  on  a  paper 
or  canvas,  and  with  such   materials  as  offer  the  greatest 
promptitude   and   facility.      The  term  applies  equally  to 
historical,  landscape,  and  genre   subjects,   whether    origi- 
nated by  the  historical   painter  in  his  studio,   or  by  the 
landscape  painter  when  before  Nature. 

225.  The  term  is   also   used  to  mean  the  outline  of  a 
drawing  or  picture  laid  in  for  the  artist's  guidance,  but 
cannot,  we  think,  be  so  legitimately  applied  to  the  deline- 
ation of  the  human  figure  when  it  is  done  slowly,  and,  it 
may  be,  with  much  rubbing  in  and  out.     This  we  should 
call  an  outline  in  preference  to  a  sketch. 

226.  It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  when  an  artist 
proposes  to  paint  a  picture  and  has  produced  his  sketch, 

10  145 


146  Sketch,  Study,  Picture. 

he  may  find  it  necessary  to  prepare  from  Nature,  with 
great  care  and  thought,  the  various  parts  of  his  picture 
separately ;  such  as,  in  some  instances,  entire  figures ; 
in  others,  human  heads,  hands,  or  feet,  animals,  trees, 
plants,  &c.  These  are  properly  called  '  studies.'  The 
purpose  of  these  studies  is  to  assist  a  painter  to  such  an 
intimate  knowledge  of  the  details  of  a  future  work,  that 
he  may  with  more  freedom  give  full  and  complete  expres- 
sion to  his  feelings.  When  we  sit  down  before  Nature, 
and  spend  much  time  and  thought  in  working  out  a 
portion  of  a  landscape,  so  as  to  make  ourselves  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  it,  whether  in  view  of  some  definitely  in- 
tended future  picture  or  not,  the  work  is  not  a  sketch,  it  is 
a  'study.' 

227.  A  picture  is  a  full  and  complete  representation 
of  a  thought,   idea,  historical   incident,  or  landscape,  on 
any  material,  whether  plaster   (fresco),  wood,  canvas,  or 
paper, — usually  understood  to  be  in  colours, — and  is  the 
natural  outcome  and  full  development  of  the  '  sketch '  and 
*  studies.' 

228.  When  the  members  of  the  Old  Water-Colour  So- 
ciety held  their  first  winter  exhibition  some  years  ago, 
there  was    a  wonderful    and  most  instructive  display  of 
studies  and  *  sketches,'  properly  so  called,  many  of  them 
incomplete  except  as  sketches,   and  very  slight.     It  was 
unique,  and  so  successful  that  an  annual  '  Winter  Exhibi- 
tion of  Sketches '  has  been  the  result.     Much  of  the  work 
exhibited,  however,  cannot  be  fairly  classed  as  'sketches,' 
but  rather  sketches  changed  into  pictures. 


Sketch,  Study,  Picture.  147 

229.  The  first  idea  of  the   'Rabbit  on  the  Wall,'  by 
Sir  David  Wilkie,  was  a  scrawl  of  only  a  few  inches  (see 
Fig.  110).*    He  afterwards  made  sepa- 
rate studies  of  some  of  the  principal 

figures,  and  ultimately  painted  the  pic- 
ture so  well  known. 

230.  Two    of    the    most    eminent 
landscape  painters  whose  works  annu- 
ally adorn    the    walls    of    the    Royal 
Academy,  pursue  quite  opposite  modes 
of  procedure  in  the  production  of  their 

works.  Of  one  of  them  it  is  said — speaking  figuratively, 
of  course — that  he  makes  innumerable  sketches,  out  of 
every  hundred  he  destroys  fifty,  and  from  the  remaining 
fifty  he  produces  five  complete  works.  The  other  rarely 
makes  a  sketch,  but  completes  his  pictures  on  the  spot. 
Considered  by  the  public  very  fortunate  in  selling  his  pic- 
tures, he  himself  says,  '  My  good  fortune  in  selling  my  pic- 
tures is  a  misfortune,  for  when  I  sell  my  pictures  I  sell  all, 
and  have  no  sketches  to  fall  back  on.' 

231.  The  'sketches'  of  an  artist  are  a  sort  of  store- 
house, from  which  the  imagination  of  the  artist  draws  its 
food  ;    and  ideas  thus  originated,  being  revolved  in  his 
mind,  may  ultimately  be  re-presented  in  the  completed  pic- 
ture. 

232.  Still,  there  is  no  clear  demarcation  by  which  always 
to  distinguish  a  'sketch'  from  a  'study,' and  a  'study' 
from  a  'picture.'    As  examples  of  'sketches'  we  may  refer 

*  From  Jackson's  large  work  on  Wood-cutting. 


148 


Sketch,  Study,  Picture. 


FIG.  111. 


FIG.  112. 


FIG.  113. 


SJcetcJi,  Study,  Picture. 


149 


Fio.  115. 


150 


SketcJi,  Study,  Picture. 


FIG.  116. 


Sketch,  Study,  Picture. 


151 


152 


Sketch,  Study,  Picture. 


to  Figs.  110,  111,  112,  113,  114,  115,  and  116.  Figs.  117 
(tree-trunk)  and  118  (grass-blades)  are  of  the  nature  of 
'studies/ each  part  having  been  carefully  put  down  from 
Nature.  The  Frontispiece,  although  without  colour,  may 
be  considered  as  a  picture. 


FIG.  118. 


CHAPTER    XXVIII. 

ON  GRASS,  HERBAGE,  ETC. 

233.  IN  the  midst  of  our  scientific  investigations,  whilst 
the  mind  is  on  full  stretch  after  exact  calculations  and 
mathematical  formulas  in  the  study  of  Nature,   there  is 
necessity  for  some  pursuit  which  will  in  part  and  for  a  time 
release  us  from  the  dry,  hard  facts  of  science.     And  such 
a  pursuit  is  not  always  without  advantage.      One  of  the 
most  beautiful  scientific  generalizations  of  modern  times 
was  the  result  of  the  dreamy  reverie  of  Goethe.     On  his 
meditative  mind  the  idea  dawned  that  the  flower  of  a  plant 
is  not  a  separated  or  superadded  organ,  but  only  the  highest 
development  and  transformation  of  its  leaves — that  all  the 
parts  of  a  plant,  from  the  seed  to  the  blossom  and  fruit, 
are  only  modifications  of  the  leaf. 

234.  The  study  of  Nature  should  be  not  merely  sen- 
suous, but  intellectual — not  only  sesthetic,  but  religious ; 
for  however  we  may  reason  on  the  evolution  and  develop- 
ment of  things,  there  still  remains  the  grand,  irresistible, 
and  inevitable  truth,  which  lies  at  the  back  of  all  our  logi- 
cal sequences  and  inferences,  and  towards  which  all  lines 
of  life  seem  to  converge, — the  great  eternal  Fatherhood, 
'  God  over  all,  blessed  for  evermore.' 

Let  us  in  this  spirit  look,  with  pencil  in  hand,  at  some 

153 


154  On  Grass,  Herbage,  &c. 

of  the  things  in  nature  which  are  manifestly  designed  for 
our  pleasure,  beginning  with  what  may  be  under  our  feet, 
— Grass. 

235.  If  we  look  at  a  field  of  grass  we  may  see  little 
more  than  a  mass  of  green,  agreeable  in  colour,  but  with 
no  striking  character  about  it ;  but  if,  instead  of  looking 
at  an  entire  field,  we  take  a  millionth  part  of  .it — a  few 
blades  of  grass — and  carefully  study  that,  we  may  have 
a  more  tangible,  definite  idea  of  the  beauty  that  lies  about 
our  path.  Taking  a  simple  example,  like  Fig.  118,  and 
reflecting  on  it,  we  observe  that  in  the  tissues  of  grass  the 
inorganic  becomes  organic,  the  dust  of  the  earth  becomes 
vital  —  vital  in  giving  off  life  and  beauty,  vital  also  in 
giving  nourishment  both  to  body  and  mind,  showing 
purposes  far  beyond  what  is  necessary  to  its  utilitarian 
destination.  In  many  grasses  and  cereals,  the  stems, 
with  their  bearded  plumes,  are  models  of  symmetry,  ele- 
gance, and  strength.  The  structure  of  grass  throughout 
exhibits  interesting  evidences  of  design ;  and  it  will  not 
hurt  our  artistic  efforts  if  we  take  some  of  these  into  ac- 
count when,  in  our  unwise  haste,  we  attempt  by  a  few 
clever  dashes  of  the  pencil  to  express  that  which  is  so 
perfect.  The  root,  in  proportion  to  its  size,  is  more 
fibrous  and  tenacious  than  that  of  any  other  plant,  and  is 
often  what  is  known  as  a  running  root  (see  Fig.  118), 
sending  up  a  new  shoot  at  each  joint,  thus  causing  the 
grass  blades  to  cluster  closely  together,  and  cover  the 
ground  as  with  a  carpet.  In  this  way  also  it  propagates 
itself,  and  thus  makes  compensation  for  the  absence  of 


On  Grass,  Herbage,  &e.  155 

blossoms,  which  animals  will  sometimes  crop,  though  it 
may  be  observed  that  they  generally  prefer  the  blades  and 
eat  round  many  flower-stalks. 

236.  The  stem  is  hollow,  and  so  constructed  that,  were 
it  the  work  of  a  human  mechanic,  it  would  be  held  up 
before  the  world  as  an  example  of  marvellous  ingenuity, 
and  perfect  for  its  purpose.     May  not  our  engineers  have 
taken  a  hint  from  a  straw  in  the  construction  of  their  long 
boilers  and  tubular  bridges  ?  The  blade  or  leaf  is  so  formed, 
being  long  and  narrow,  as  to  offer  the  least  resistance  to 
the  earth  and  wind,  and  y^et  get  an  abundance  of  light  and 
air.     The  flowers  of  some  grasses  are  wonders  of  design. 
They  are  often  produced  from  the  upper  sheath  which 
encloses  them  when  young,  and  are  disposed  in  simple  or 
in  branching  heads,  each  head  consisting  of  two  or  more 
chaffy  scales,  inserted  one  above  another ;  and  from  these 
scales  hang  slender  threads,  terminating  in  yellow  knobs  of 
dusty-looking  pollen.     It  is  said  that  there  are  more  than 
three  hundred  genera,  and  upwards  of  five  thousand  differ- 
ent species  of  grass  in  the  world. 

The  colour  of  grass  is  that  which  is  most  soothing  to  the 
eye. 

Altogether,  the  exquisite  perfection  of  it — in  its  form, 
colour,  adaptation — enables  us  to  see  not  only  God's  care  for 
helplessness  and  lowliness,  but  His  care,  too,  for  beauty  as 
an  end,  and  not  as  a  mere  means. 

The  Great  Teacher  spoke  wisely  when  He  said,  f  CON- 
SIDER the  flowers  of  the  field.' 

237.  It  is  good  and  pleasant  practice,  especially  for  a 


156 


On  Grass,  Herbage,  &c. 


beginner  in  drawing,  to  copy  leaves  in  flat  symmetrical 
form,  like  the  Ivy-leaf  in  Fig.  119,  and  if  he  has  a  correct 
eye  and  steady  hand  he  may  soon  draw  detached  leaves 
very  beautifully.  But  here  is  the  danger  :  he  is  likely  to 
become  mechanical,  for  the  drawing  of  flat  scroll  -  work 
and  flat  leaves  has  little  art  in  it.  But  if  a  leaf  is  so 
placed  as  to  show  its  varied  and  delicate  curves  in  front 
one  of  another — in  other  words,  if  it  be  foreshortened — 
then  we  are  no  longer  drawing  from  the  flat,  but  from  an 


FIG.  119. 


FIG.  120. 


object  in  space,  with  all  the  exquisite  changes  of  curve  and 
surface,  and  there  is  now  more  properly  a  field  for  Art- 
expression  (see  Fig.  120). 

In  this  kind  of  work  two  things  should  be  observed  : 
first,  to  draw  the  leaves  with  strict  botanical  accuracy, 
whether  in  the  correct  veining  and  serrating  of  a  leaf,  or 
in  the  careful  copying  of  petals  and  calices  of  a  flower ; 
and  secondly,  to  do  all  this  without  losing  the  beauty  of 
natural  curve  and  delicacy  of  expression  which  would  ren- 
der it  a  real  work  of  Art. 


On  Grass,  Herbage,  &c. 


157 


158 


On  Grass,  Herbage,  &c. 


This  conscientious  and  artistic  mode  of  drawing  grasses, 
leaves,  and  flowers,  separately,  forms  a  good  stepping-stone 
to  more  advanced  sketching  out  of  doors.  It  is  desirable 


c. 


sometimes  to  draw  them  their  natural  size,  at  other  times 
they  may  be  drawn  in  the  pocket  sketch-book,  as  shown 
in  Figs.  121  and  122,  when  they  partake  more  of  the 
character  of  '  notes '  or  memoranda. 


On  Grass,  Herbage,  &c. 


159 


238.  When  sketching  grass  in  quantity  from  Nature, 
especially  when  the  ground  is  uneven,  it  is  well  to  lay  in 
the  shade  for  the  denser  masses  first,  as  in  Figs.  123  and 
124,  and  afterwards  to  complete  by  the  addition  of  dis- 
tinct organic  shapes.  Sometimes  it  may  be  desirable  to 
make  quite  a  study  of  herbage,  as  in  Fig.  125,  but  larger. 
Whatever  is  attempted  should  be  done  with  a  view  to 
structural  truth  and  artistic  beauty. 


FIG.  125. 


CHAPTER    XXIX. 

ON  TREES, 

239.  THE    representation    of  these  beautiful  landscape 
adornments  is  confessedly  difficult.     They  are  so  complex 
and   so  varied,  that  in  order  to  study  them  satisfactorily 
we  must  in  some  way  classify  them.     But  as  Art  has  to 
do  with  the  appearances  of  things  rather  than  with  their 
physiological  structure,  our  classification   must  have  chief 
reference  to  appearances  and  the  modes  of  representation ; 
and    in    doing    even   this   we  can   only  notice  the    broad 
characteristics,  as  of  Oak,  Ash,  Birch,  &c.,  and  not  those 
finer    differences   by   which  we  distinguish  the    Sycamore 
from    the    Maple,  or  the   Oak  from    the    Alder,  especially 
when    expressed    only  in    black    and  white.     And  in  this 
classification  we  shall,  for  the  present  at  least,  leave  out 
the  coniferous  trees,  and  all  shrubs  such  as  Rhododendrons, 
that  we  may  more  strongly  fix  our  attention,  and  more 
clearly  understand    the  few    which  we    may  consider   as 
typical  of  many. 

240.  For  the  satisfactory  expression  of  trees,  especially 
with  a  point — e.  g.  pen  or  pencil — considerable  practice  is 
absolutely  necessary,  less  in  drawing  or  copying  particular 
trees  than  in  that  kind  of  exercise  of  shade  or  of  character 

which  will  enable  us  successfully  to  attempt  any  tree  :  just 

160 


On  Trees.  161 

as  a  vocalist  who,  before  a  concert,  practises  not  the  song 
but  the  'scales,'  so  as  to  prepare  the  voice  for  the  effort 
about  to  be  made. 

241.  It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  there  is 
one  *  touch '  for  one  kind  of  tree  and  a  different '  touch '  for 
another  kind    of    tree.     Even    great    men    have  been    in 
danger  of  falling  into  this  mistake.     Constable  is  said  to 
have    told  an  eminent    artist  that  he    had  got  a   'capital 
touch  for  trees.'     'But  for  what  kind  of  trees  ?' inquired 
his  friend.     'Oh/   said  Constable,   'it  will  do  for  almost 
any  sort  of  tree.'    Such  an  idea  we  deprecate.     In  these 
days  of  intense  observation,  arising  chiefly  from  the  joint 
influence  of  pre-Raphaelism  and  photography,  we  are  not, 
or  at  least  ought  not,  to  be  satisfied  with  indefinite  and 
non-characteristic  work. 

242.  If   we    stndy    carefully    a    few    of  what  we  are 
calling  typical  trees,  such  as  the  Oak,  the  Ash,  and  the 
Beech,  others  which  are  less  forceful  in  their  character 
will    readily    yield    to    our    efforts.      That    this    may    be 
better  understood,  we  will  place  them  in  tabulated  form, 
thus : — 


Oak. 

Ash. 

Beech. 

Alder. 

Chestnut. 

Birch. 

Sycamore. 
Thorn. 

Horse-chestnut. 
Willows. 

Poplars. 

Olive. 

Acacia. 

243.  We    will    consider    then,   as    briefly    as   possible, 
each  of  these  leading  trees;  and  in  doing  so— in  trying 


162  On  Trees. 

to  get  a  tangible  idea  of  them — we  must  take  a  sort  of 
diagnosis,  and  ascertain  the  causes  for  their  appearances. 
All  trees  have  some  things  in  common,  such  as  roundness 
and  leafiness ;  but  some  have  a  hard  and  angular  appear- 
ance, and  may  be  looked  upon  as  masculine  in  character, 
whilst  others  convey  the  idea  of  tenderness  and  gentle 
beauty.  Of  the  former,  the  Oak  is  an  example ;  of  the 
latter,  the  Birch  and  the  Beech. 

244.  The  appearance  of  a  tree  depends  mainly  —  1st, 
on  the  shape  of  the  leaves ;  2nd,  on  the  arrangement 
of  the  leaves  on  the  twigs  or  on  the  peduncles;  3rd,  on 
the  arrangement  of  the  twigs  on  the  branches,  and  the 
branches  on  the  stem. 

Although  physiologists  tell  us  that  each  kind  of  tree 
has  its  particular  angle  of  branch  divergence,  the  circum- 
stances of  life  in  the  growth  of  a  tree  are  so  varied  as 
altogether  to  change  the  normal  condition  of  branching. 
The  great  business  of  a  branch  is  to  carry  its  buds  out 
and  up  into  the  warmth  and  light,  and  the  efforts  to 
accomplish  this  are  sometimes  most  curious  and  erratic. 
Suppose,  for  instance,  that  there  is  a  young  shoot 
growing  from  the  stem  of  a  tree,  and  that  the  tree  is 
blown  down  by  the  wind,  but  in  such  a  manner  as  not 
to  tear  away  all  its  roots  from  the  earth,  though  'the 
shoot  may  remain  underneath  the  tree  for  a  time,  the 
following  spring  it  will  be  found  to  have  bent  round 
from  under  the  stem,  and  thus  to  be  carrying  its  new 
buds  to  the  light. 

Hence  it  will  be  observed  that  leaves  and  flowers  are 


On  Trees. 


163 


more  abundant  on  that  side  of  the  tree  which  receives  the 
most  light  and  warmth,  so   that  the  centre  of  the  con- 
centric rings  is  seldom  in  the  centre  of  the  bole  of  tho 
tree,   as    may    be    seen 
when  a   tree-stem    has 
been  sawn  through,  as 
in  the  rough  Fig.   126. 
In  fact,  we  may   then 
not  only  count  the  years 
of  its  growth,  but  tell,  FlG 

also,    the     position     in 

which  it  has  grown,  and  the  kind  of  summer  it  has  prob- 
ably had  for  many  years  past.  * 

245.  The  almost   infinite  variety  of  leaves, '  which  at 
first  may  stagger  us,  is  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  aesthetic 
enjoyment  and  of  scientific  inquiry,  for  all  are  obedient  to 
the  laws  both  of  variety  and  of  unity.     Each  kind  of  tree 
has  its  own  kind  of  leaf,  which  may  be  distinguished  from 
the  leaves  of  all  other  trees,  yet  no  two  leaves  from  any  one 
tree  are  found  to  be  exactly  alike — a  beautiful  example  of 
infinity  with  unity. 

246.  We  have  alluded  to  the  causes  of  this  variety  in  the 
appearances  of  trees.     We  will  consider  these  very  briefly, 
and  consequently  but  imperfectly. 

First,  then,  taking  them  in  the  inverse  order  given, 
and  beginning  with  the  stem,  we  notice  the  way  in  which 
the  leaves  start  away  from  the  parent  stem.  They  all,  of 

*This  is  only  the  case  with  exogens — trees  which  increase  from 
the  outside — and  not  with  endogcns,  such  as  Palms  and  Canes. 


164  On  Trees. 

course,  originate  in  the  buds  of  the  previous  summer,  and 
it  is  thus  that 

1  Another  year  is  hidden  along  the  bough.' 

Some  leaves  diverge  from  the  stem  alternately  ;  others 
opposite  ;  others,  again,  opposite  and  alternate,  as  shown 
in  the  shoot  of  Sycamore  (Fig.  122).  Many  trees  have 
their  leaves  arranged  in  whorls,  as  the  Oak  (Fig.  127), 
where  five  leaves  form  a  whorl,  the  sixth  beginning  a  new 
cycle. 

247.  The  next  cause  of  variety  in  tree  appearance  we 


~ 

PIG.  127.         FIG.  138.  FIG.  129.  FIG.  130. 

may  find  in  the  leaf  arrangements  as  they  emerge  from 
the  buds.  The  vernation  of  leaves  exhibits  in  a  most 
exquisite  manner  the  special  provision  for  an  endless  va- 
riety of  leaf  form  and  leaf  arrangement,  and  no  student 
should  let  a  spring  season  pass  without  making  some  ex- 
aminations and  observations  in  this  interesting  subject, 
apart  from  his  study  of  Art. 

248.  It  may  be  observed  that  there  are  cases  in  which 
the  vernations  and  shapes  of  leaves  on  different  trees  at 
first  appear  almost  the  same.  Comparing  the  Sycamore 


On  Trees. 


165 


and  the  Horse-chestnut,  we  find  in  each  an  arrangement 
similar  to  that   shown    in  Fig.  132  at  b  ;    but-  as  they 


FIG.  181. 


FIG.  132. 


develop,  the  peduncles  of  the  latter  lengthen  and  carry  the 
leaves  far  out,  and  form  those  beautiful  digitate  masses 
with  which  the  tree  is  covered  ;  whilst  the  peduncles  of 


166  On  Trees. 

the  Sycamore,  remaining,  short,  allow  the  leaves  to  be 
sessile,  or  nearly  so,  thus  making  a  great  difference  in  the 
general  appearance  of  the  entire  tree  (Fig.  138). 

249.  A  third  cause  of  variety  in  the  appearances   of 
trees,  we  have  said,  arises  from   the   shape  of  the  indi- 
vidual leaves.      This,    however,   has  not    so  powerful  or 
striking  an  effect  as  might  at  first  be  imagined,  as  trees 
are  usually  viewed  at  some  distance  away,  and  the  leaves 
are  seldom  separately  visible.     Still,  in  some  trees,  where 
the  leaves  are  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  tree, 
they  are  distinctly  seen,  as  in  the  Horse-chestnut ;    but 
this    presence   of    individuality  in  the  leaves  of    a  tree, 
although  pleasant  sometimes  to  look  upon,   so  interferes 
with  the  idea  of  infinity  and  mystery  of  leafiness  as  to 
make  it  but  seldom  used  as  the  object  of  artistic  repre- 
sentation. 

250.  We  must  now  take  one  of  our  typical  trees — the 
Oak  (Fig.  133) — and  consider  how  we  may  best  put  it  on 
paper,  so  as  to  call  up  in  the  mind  those  emotions  which 
the  same  tree  in  Nature  would  give  rise  to.     One  thing  is 
certain, — we  cannot  copy  it.     Even  the  camera  does  this 
but  very  unsatisfactorily.      But  though  Art  cannot  copy, 
it  may  express  on   paper  many  of  those  properties  and 
peculiarities  by  which  not  only  the  kind  of  tree,  but  the 
individual  tree  itself,  may  be  recognised.     Thus  the  author 
some  time  ago  received  from  a  young  artist  a  drawing  of 
a  branch  of  a  tree.      It  was  at  once  recognisable  as  an  Ash 
branch  ;  and  knowing  it  to  be  taken  from  one  of  some 
half-dozen   trees,  and  being  wishful   to  verify  the  work, 


On  Trees.  167 

he  went  into  the  lane,  and  soon  discovered  not  only  the 
tree  but  the  branch  from  which  the  drawing  had  been 
made. 

In  the  Oak  it  is  not  the  serrature  of  the  leaf  which 
affects  its  appearance  in  the  mass,  but  the  arrangement  on 
the  stalk.  The  shape  of  the  leaf  is  given  in  Fig.  128,  and 
its  sessile  arrangement  in  Fig.  129,  of  which  a  rough 
contour  is  given  in  Fig.  130.  It  must  not  be  supposed, 
however,  that  by  covering  a  given  surface  of  paper  with 
such  markings  as  these,  or  even  with  carefully  copied 
Oak-leaves,  we  shall  produce  any  likeness  to  a  tree.  We 
forget  that  a  tree  in  Nature  does  not  appeal  equally  to 
us  from  every  part.  It  is  only  the  light  parts  and  the 
edges  that  are  impressed  strongly  on  the  sensorium,  and 
it  is,  therefore,  to  these  parts  that  our  special  efforts 
should  be  directed.  But  ^vhat  of  the  shade  ?  it  may  be 
inquired.  Simply  that  it  must  be  quiet,  for  repose  is 
its  chief  quality,  if  not  its  purpose,  also ;  not  the  con- 
fusion or  the  destruction  of  detail,  but  its  partial  con- 
cealment, that  those  other  portions  by  which  we  are  to 
recognise  the  tree  may  be  more  conveniently  and  clearly 
perceived. 

251.  In  the  practice  of  tree  drawing  it  is  often  de- 
sirable, after  a  light  but  accurate  sketch  or  outline  has 
been  made  for  guidance,  to  divide  the  work  as  follows : — 
First,  to  lay  in  the  shade,  paying  attention  to  its  even- 
ness, its  gradation,  and  its  intricacy  ;  then  to  lay  in  the 
character  or  leafage  on  the  light  parts  and  at  the  edges, 
with  a  strong  intention  of  introducing,  where  possible, 


168 


On  Trees. 


FIG.  133. 


On  Trees. 


169 


FIG.  134. 


170  On  Trees. 

actual  shapes  of  leaves  instead  of  mere  '  touch ; '  and 
finally,  to  draw  the  stem,  the  branches,  and  the  twigs, 
keeping  the  former  inside  and  under  the  tree,  and  causing 
the  latter  to  do  their  work  of  holding  up  their  leaves  to 
the  light.  This  systematic  method  of  working  will  be 
found  applicable  to  any  kind  of  tree  drawing.  It  was  the 
constant  practice  of  that  prince  of  tree-draughtsmen,  J.  D. 
Harding. 

252.  In  Figs.  131  and  132  are  given  small  portions  of 
Oak  and  Sycamore.     At  first  sight  they  may  not  seem  very 
dissimilar,  but  careful   examination  and  repeated  inspec- 
tion, till  they  become  familiar,   will  reveal  a  wide  differ- 
ence between  them,   especially  if  they  be  compared  with 
Nature. 

253.  Taking  the  next  division  of  our  typical  trees,  we 
may  observe  that  the  normal  branch  divergence  of  the  Ash, 
though  calculated*  as  an  angle  of  60°,  does  really  vary  very 
much,  as  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  134,  which  was  sketched  from 
a  tree  of  probably  fifty  years'  growth.     It  already  shows  a 
great  difference  of    angle  between  the    lower  and  upper 
branches,  and  we  may  consider  this  as  a  usual  habit  of 
branches,  for  they  certainly  would  not  grow  laterally  if  they 
could  otherwise  get  towards  the  light.     This  may  be  well 
seen  in  the  Sycamore  (Fig.  138),  where  a  vigorous  branch 
at  a,  not  being  able  to  get  to  the  light  by  any  other  means, 
strikes  off  almost  horizontally  to  the  right,  and  thus  ob- 
tains that  which  was  necessary  to  its  existence.     The  leaves 
of  the  Ash  are  compound  and  pinnate,  as  shown  in  Fig. 

*  McCosh  and  Balfour. 


On  Trees.  171 

135.  In  studying  trees  whose  masses  of  leaves  are  some- 
what long  and  which  have  a  tendency  to  droop,  we  should 
be  careful  to  observe  the  manner  in  which  they  foreshorten, 
as  they  retire  at  the  sides  of  the  tree.  It  might  be  supposed 
that  perspective  had  but  little  to  do  with  trees :  in  reality 
it  is  most  important,  though  greatly  neglected  even  by 
artists. 

254.  We  will  endeavour  in  a  very  simple  manner  to 
make  this  understood.      The  term  *  perspective '  (perspicio) 


FIG.  135. 

has  to  do  (apart  from  the  atmosphere)  with  two  properties 
of  bodies,  their  shape  and  their  size  :  with  their  shape 
according  to  the  position  in  which  they  are  viewed,  and 
with  their  size  according  to  their  distance  from  the 
spectator.  Figs.  119  and  120  were  carefully  copied  from 
the  same  Ivy-leaf,  but  in  different  positions.  If  they 
were  removed  to  a  distance  they  would  look  smaller,  but 
the  same  shape.  We  may  see  little  perspective  in  a  plain 
sphere  ;  but  if  we  cover  it  with  a  pattern  we  instantly 
cover  it  with  perspective.  A  reference  to  the  rough 


172 


On  Trees. 


sketch  (Fig.  130)  will  make  this  evident.  The  centre 
space  has  a  pattern  receding  only  towards  the  top ;  but 
the  other  divisions,  as  they  retire  to  the  right  and  left, 
have  their  patterns  foreshortened.  This  is  precisely  what 
takes  place  in  trees,  and  what  ought  to  be  expressed  in 
our  representations  of  them.  We  ought  to  have  regard 
not  only  to  the  foreshortening  of  large  branches  and 
masses,  but  also  to  the  diminished  size  of  the  leaves  at  the 
top  and  sides  of  the  tree,  which,  being  so  much  further 


away  than  those  in  the  front,  must  of  necessity  appear 
much  smaller. 

255.  This  application  of  perspective  to  trees  is  very  well 
seen  in  the  Ash,  now  under  consideration,  but  is  equally 
important  in  all  trees. 

256.  The  many  different  kinds  of  Willows,  the  Olive, 
and  the  Acacia,  though  differing  from  the  Ash  both  in 
shape  and   arrangement  of   leaf,  are  placed  in  the  same 
division,  and  the  same  kind  of  exercise  for  the  one  will 

in  the  expression  of  the  others.      The   leaf  shape 


On  Trees.  173 

and  arrangement  of  the  Olive  and  of  some  of  the  Willows 
are  very  similar,  and,  apart  from  the  colour,  scarcely 
distinguishable. 

257.  At  the  head  of  our  third  typical  division  of  trees 
we  have  placed  the  Beech,  which  we  will  briefly  examine. 

In  most  of  the  trees  we  have  had  under  review,  their 
arrangements  of  leaves  have  been  such  as  to  form  com- 
paratively large  and  simple  masses  of  light  and  shade. 
In  the  Beech,  as  also  in  the  Birch  and  Poplar,  the  leaves 


are  so  isolated  as  to  make  them  very  difficult  to  represent 
except  by  separate  leaf-like  shapes  ;  and  consequently  a 
readily  produced  shade,  like  that  in  Fig.  137,  is  no  longer 
applicable,  and  the  danger  of  laying  in  a  shade  with  small 
points  is,  lest  the  evenness,  so  essential  to  shade,  should  be 
disturbed. 

258.  In  the  upper  part  of  Fig.  140  is  represented  a 
mass  of  shade,  and  in  the  lower  a  small  leaf  spray  and 
branch  of  Beech  and  Birch,  showing  the  way  in  which 


174 


On  Trees. 


FIG.  138. 


On  Trees. 


175 


FIQ.  13d. 


176 


On  'Trees. 


the  leaves  are  given  off  from  the  twigs  and  branches. 
The  treatment  of  them  in  Art,  as  well  as  of  the  White 
and  Black  Poplar,  is  very  similar  ;  but  the  chief  difference 
in  the  appearance  of  the  entire  tree  arises  from  the  char- 
acter of  the  branches  and  twigs.  The  Lombardy  Poplar 
affords  an  example  of  extreme  acuteness  in  the  branching. 


•^•sJ 


X^t:^x,r^^^P7 


FIG.  140. 


The  Black  and  White  Poplars,  and  also  the  Black  Birch, 
although  very  divergent  in  their  branching,  are  sometimes 
elegant  in  form,  but  for  exquisite  gracefulness  of  line  the 
Silver  Birch  (Fig.  139)  stands  unrivalled. 

The  stem  of  the  Birch,  like  that  of  most  young  trees, 
is  smooth,  and  covered  with  beautiful  striated  markings ; 
but  as  it  ages,  and  especially  in  some  soils,  it  becomes 


On  Trees. 


177 


FIG.  141. 


178  On  Trees. 


deeply  corrugated,  like  the  Oak  and  Horse-chestnut.  The 
Beech  stem  retains  its  smoothness  throughout  its  entire 
growth,  as  may  be  observed  in  the  grand  old  Burnham 
Beeches,  and  in  Fig.  141. 

259.  We  have  thus  briefly  glanced  at  some  of  the  prin- 
cipal English  forest  trees,  with  the  exception  of  the  Coni- 
fers, which  seem  to  form  a  division  by  themselves.     The 
principal  individuals  are  the  Stone  Pine  and  Scotch  Fir, 
the  Spruces  and  the  Larches.     In  this  division  we  must  also 
place  the  Yew,  whose  solemn  shade  and  usual  locality  so 
greatly  assist  artistic  sentiment. 

260.  Until  these  trees  attain  considerable  age,  so  as  to 
form  large  masses,  they  are   difficult  to  represent  truly. 
Their  spike-like   leaves,   properly  called    '  spines '  can  be 
treated  #nly    in    the    aggregate.      In    the    Larches    and 
Spruces  the  branch  divergence  is  such  as  causes  the  tree 
to  assume  a  form  resembling  the  cones  they  bear,  strongly 
contrasting  with  most  other  trees.     The  Stone  Pine  and 
the  Scotch  Fir,  when  full  grown,  become  very  imposing 
and    picturesque,   often  carrying    their  dark   heads    high 
against  the  sky. 

2G1.  In  representing  them  with  a  point,  the  same 
methodical  procedure  which  has  been  recommended  for 
trees  generally,  should  be  adopted  here.  In  expressing 
the  masses  of  spines,  however,  it  will  be  observed  that  as 
their  position  is  vertical,  the  shade  preparation  for  them 
should  be  treated  more  like  the  preparation  for  grass  in 
Figs.  123  and  124.  The  twigs  are  very  numerous  and 


On  Trees.  179 

reticulate,  each  carrying  on  its  tip  a  little  tuft  of  spines, 
as  at  c  in  Fig.  142.* 

262.  In  a  separate  Chapter  we  will  endeavour  to  assist 
the  student  in  his  practice  by  summarising  some  essential 
principles  always  to  be  observed  in  drawing  trees,  leaving 
this  part  of  our  subject,  in  the  strong  hope  that  he  may 
be  induced  to  study,  earnestly  and  lovingly,  these  beautiful 


FIG.  143. 

manifestations  of  wisdom  which  form  so  important  a  link 
in  the  great  cycle  of  created  organisms. 

263.  It  would  not  be  desirable,  even  if  it  were  possible, 
to  give  rules  for  drawing  all  the  different  kinds  of  trees : 
there  is,  however,  one  general  principle  almost  universal 

*  The  cones  themselves,  especially  those  of  the  Scotch  Fir,  are  very 
beautiful  objects,  and  serve  as  excellent  examples  for  copying  practice. 
When  covered  with  a  thin  wash  of  Chinese  white,  the  light  and  shade 
on  them  become  more  apparent  ;  but  this  should  only  be  done  in  early 
practice. 


180  On  Trees. 

in  its  application,  which  we  will  illustrate  by  an  anecdote 
of  one  who  became  a  giant  as  a  draughtsman  of  trees. 
About  the  jear  1824,  the  late  J.  D.  Harding,  then  an 
energetic,  inquiring  young  artist,  had  fruitlessly  sought 
from  eminent  artists  and  '  drawing-masters '  some  prin- 
ciples for  his  guidance  in  Art,  which  might  also  assist 
him  in  his  lithographic  work — then  a  new  discovery.  He 
was  curbly  recommended,  instead  of  asking  questions  of 
his  '  master,'  to  go  and  sketch  from  Nature,  and  ask  Her. 
This  he  did,  and  on  one  occasion,  when  sketching  some 
trees  by  a  large  gravel-pit  near  Greenwich  Park,  almost 
in  despair  at  his  ill-success,  a  bright  thought  crossed  his 
mind.  'These  trees,'  he  said  to  himself,  'obey  laws  in 
their  growth:  if  I  can  only  observe  and  put  down  those 
laws  in  my  drawing,  I  shall  put  down  TRUTH  ! '  Charmed 
with  his  bright  idea  he  gave  up  his  sketching,  and  hast- 
ened to  the  Park  close  by,  to  observe  the  laws  of  growth 
peculiar  to  the  different  kinds  of  trees,  and  this,  he  told 
the  author,  was  the  foundation  of  his  success  as  a  repre- 
senter  of  trees.  His  success  soon  became  complete,  as  was 
shown  in  the  production  of  The  Park  and  Forest,  a  work 
which  still  remains  unrivalled. 


CHAPTER    XXX. 

'  ON  PRACTICE  FOB  TREE  DRAWING;. 

264.  THE   beautiful  components  of    the    forest  —  the 
trees — are  so  varied   and  so  free  in  their  growth,  their 
long  arms  waving  in  the  wind,  whilst  their  strong  stems 
sturdily  face  the  blast,  that  he  who  in  his  drawing  of 
them  would  give  the  expression  of  their  freedom  of  life, 
must  himself  feel  free  in  manipulation — must  work  with 
a  sort  of  controlled  abandon — full  of  knowledge  of  their 
general  character,  and  of  watchfulness  of  their  wayward 
peculiarities. 

265.  The  student,  in  practising  the  exercises  here  sug- 
gested, must  be  careful  to  make  a  distinction  between  quasi- 
work  and  real,  intentional  work.     We  have  defined  drawing 
as  'a  motion  which  leaves  significant  marks,'  and  although 
some  of  these  exercises  may  at  first  sight  seem  insignificant, 
there  must  be  constant  intention  in  producing  them,  or  the 
result  will  be  mere  scribble. 

Beginning,  then,  with  the  first  exercise  in  shade  (Fig. 
143),  the  qualities  to  be  aimed  at  are  three, — evenness, 
gradation,  and  intricacy, — keeping  the  strokes  shorter  and 
paler  at  b,  c,  d,  and  e, 

266.  The  strokes  composing  the  second  exercise  (Fig. 
144)  are  not  so  nearly  horizontal,  but  are  tilted,  first  on 
one  side,  then   on  the   other,  so  as  to  give  a  somewhat 

181 


182 


On  Practice  for  Tree  Drawing. 


angular  appearance  ;  but  in  all  cases  of  shade,  for  what- 
ever purpose,  there  must  be  such  evenness  of  work  as  will 
secure  repose,  without  which  shade  would  cease  to  be. 
This  kind  of  shade  would  be  suitable  for  Oak-like  trees. 


267.  A  third  exercise  may  be  practised  from  the  upper 
part  of  Fig.  139,  by  making  the  strokes  much  shorter,  but 
still  keeping  the  essential  conditions  of  shade  just  alluded 
to.  As  the  first  example  would  be  suitable  for  Ash-trees, 
&c.,  so  this  would  be  for  Beech,  Birch,  Poplar,  &c. 


On  Practice  for  Tree  Drawing.  183 

268.  "We  now  come  to  the  expression  of  the  outer 
and  projecting  surfaces  of  trees.  In  Chapter  IV.  it  was 
shown  that  a  flat  contour  or  outline  could  be  greatly 
modified  by  the  addition  of  surface  markings.  The  direc- 
tion of  a  line  will  often  indicate  the  direction  of  a  surface  ; 
and  this  should  be  constantly  borne  in  mind  in  practising 
the  exercises  which  follow.  In  the  first  one,  Fig.  "145, 
which  should  be  repeated  very  often,  the  lines  at  a  and  a 
should  incline  upwards,  so  as  to  form  the  groups  like  c  c, 


a 


^  c 

>\"^ 


ffl     X/),N 

FIG.  145. 

and  afterwards  bend  down  in  the  manner  of  d  d,  always 
being  emphasised  at  their  outer  edges.  These  should  be 
drawn  of  various  sizes,  gradually  increasing,  so  that  the 
power  may  be  acquired  of  expressing  them  perfectly,  and 
with  great  facility. 

269.  This  may  be  followed  by  Eig.  146,  which  assumes 
a  little  more  the  appearance  of  tree  form. 

In  Fig.  147,  at  A,  is  given  a  simple  outline,  with  no 
detail  on  it ;  but  in  B  some  additional  character  is  added, 
as  shown  at  b  b  and  c  c,  by  which  considerable  rotundity  is 


184  On  Practice  for  Tree  Drawing. 


%""  ft*:>    ^>'^       ^ 

N^  Tri      ,>>  r 


r 


fX   -'^ 

;      N   . 


«fc 


*^          ^ 

PIG.  11G. 


.  _ 

\  4~,-        "TV. 


FIG.  '147. 


On  Practice  for  Tree  Drawing. 


185 


given  to  the  original  disc-like  shape  of  A.  It  is  this  rotun- 
dity and  flexibility  which  must  be  continually  aimed  at  in 
the  expression  of  foliage. 

270.  When  these  outline  and  shade  exercises  have  been 
well  practised  separately,  we  may  attempt  to  put  them 


FIG.  148. 


together,  and  add  stems  and  branches ;  but  in  doing  this 
let  it  be  well  borne  in  mind,  that  as  most  of  the  shade 
parts  are  intended  to  retire,  the  outline  of  the  light  masses 
should  impinge  a  little  on  the  shade,  and  also  that  the 
stems,  being  cylindrical,  must  be  shaded  accordingly.  This 
is  shown  in  Fiff.  148. 


186 


On  Practice  for  Tree  Drawing. 


271.  We  have  thus  endeavoured  to  show  a  modus 
operandi  by  which  trees  may  be  successfully  attempted 
with  the  point,  as  of  a  pen.  The  pencil  and  the  brush 
are,  however,  much  more  suitable  and  powerful  instru- 
ments for  Tree  representation,  and  when  the  student  has 
leisure  to  follow  up  the  subject  further,  he  may  be  referred 
for  help  to  Elementary  Art,  and  to  Lessons  on  Trees,  by 
J.  D.  Harding,  or  to  the  author's  own  work,  Forest  Trees 
of  British  Landscape. 


CHAPTER    XXXI. 

ON   WATER. 

272.  THE  representation  of   water    in  drawing,  owing 
to  its  mobility  and  transparency,  is  difficult,  except  when 
perfectly  still ;    and   much    unnecessary  difficulty  in    the 
study  of  reflections  in  water   also    arises    from   confusing 
the  idea  of  Shadow*    with    that  of    Reflection.     For   the 
existence  of  the  former  some  opacity  is  necessary ;  for  the 
latter,  no  opacity,  but  at  least  a  polished  surface. 

273.  By    'reflection'    is     here    meant     the    image    or 
picture  caused  by  rays  or  beams  falling   from   any  object 
upon    a    smooth    surface,  such  as    glass,    water,    polished 
metal,  &c.,  and  being  thrown  thence  on  to  the  eye. 

In  all  cases  where  light  falls,  or,  speaking  techni- 
cally, is  incident  upon  the  surface  of  a  solid  or  a  liquid, 
the  reflection  is  partial ;  that  is,  some  of  the  rays  are 
absorbed,  f 

*  The  fable  of  '  The  Dog  and  his  Shadow '  is  quite  a  misnomer  ;  it 
ought  to  be  the  Dog  and  his  Image. 

f  At  a  perpendicular  incidence  water  reflects  only  18  rays  out  of 
every  1000. 

At  an  angle  of  40"  water  reflects  22  rays  out  of  every  1000. 

„       60°     „        „        65        „ 
>»        »       80"     >»        »      333        „  ,,  „ 

„        „       891   „        „      721        „ 

TYNDALL. 
187 


188  On  Water. 

274.  When  a  beam  of  light  passes  obliquely  from  one 
medium  to  another,  as  from  air  into  water,  refraction  (a 
breaking  or  bending  of  the  rays)  takes  place,  as  may  be 
seen    by    putting    a    spoon    or    a  pencil  obliquely  into  a 
tumbler  of  water;    but  as  refraction  takes  place  in  the 
water,  and  reflections  are  seen  on  the  water,  we  need  not 
at  present  trouble  ourselves  about  it. 

275.  For  the  full  understanding  of  this  complex  sub- 
ject some  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  optics  is  necessary; 
nevertheless,  much  may  be  learned  by   a  few  simple  ex- 
periments and  observations :    and  first,  it  had    better  be 


studied  in  its  simplest  form — reflection  on  an  absolutely 
calm  surface,  and  for  our  purpose  now,  a  mirror  (an  ordi- 
nary hand-glass  will  suffice)  laid  flat  on  the  table  shall 
represent  our  sheet  of  water. 

27G.  Before  proceeding  further  with  the  experiment, 
it  had  better  be  explained  that  the  angle  of  reflection  and 
the  angle  of  incidence  are  always  the  same.  Thus,  in 
Fig.  149,  let  A  B  represent  the  level  surface  of  water.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  angle,  A  o  c,  is  equal  to  the  angle, 
BOD.  It  is  just  so  in  Nature. 

277.  Or  it  may  be  put  thus  (Fig.  150)  :— Let  A  B,  as 
before,  represent  the  level  water,  and  A  o  c  and  BOD  equal 


On  Water. 


189 


angles.  Further,  let  the  eye  be  supposed  at  c,  looking 
towards  o,  and  E  be  an  imaginary  spectator  under  the 
water,  c  would  see  reflected  at  o  what  E  would  see  on 
the  line  o  D.  Returning  now  to  our  sheet  of  water — the 


FIG.  150. 

hand-glass — put  upon  it  some  oblong  bits  of  wood  or  cork, 
fixing  into  them  pins  for  masts,  and  pieces  of  paper  for 
sails.  Behind  these,  on  the  edge,  we  may  place  a  book  to 
represent  upright  rocks,  and  a  crumpled  pocket-hand- 
kerchief or  piece  of  newspaper  for  the  retiring  banks. 


FIG.  151. 

We  can  now  observe  the  various  reflections  from  various 
elevations,  from  the  shore  or  looking-glass  level,  higher 
and  higher.  (See  Fig.  151.) 

278.  The  picture  or  image  in  calm  water  is,  however, 
not  an  exact  inverted  reproduction  of  the  object  as  we  see 


190  On  Water.     , 

it  on  the  shore,  but  often  a  reproduction  under  an  entirely 
new  arrangement.  For  instance,  a  spectator  viewing  Fig. 
152  (Frontispiece),  though  he  could  not  be  cognisant  of 
what  was  under  the  roof,  would  readily  see  it  reflected  in  the 
water.  So,  also,  the  reflections  of  birds  must  be  inverted. 

We  are  at  present  only  on  the  very  confines  of  the 
infinity  of  facts  to  be  observed  in  water  reflections,  and 
we  shall  not  here  attempt  to  go  beyond  the  threshold. 
"We  have  hitherto  been  on  smooth  water  :  let  there  come 
a  breath  of  wind,  and  the  water  is  broken  up  into  millions 

S 

A 

S 


8 

FIG.  153. 

of  surfaces,  each  little  wavelet  carrying  on  its  back  or  in 
its  bosom  an  expanded  or  contracted  image  of  all  it 
reflects.  When  we  consider  the  rendering  of  a  single 
wave  in  colour,  the  difficulty  becomes  more  manifest.  For 
instance,  Jet  us  imagine  an  artist  attempting  to  paint  a 
wave  in  a  sunset,  as  represented  by  the  rough  diagram  in 
Fig.  153,  seen  from  s. 

But,  to  make  our  explanation  more  simple,  instead  of 
the  curved  lines  as  at. A,  we  will  substitute  a  few  straight 
lines,  which  shall  indicate  the  general  direction  of  the 
principal  curves  as  in  B. 


On   Water.  191 


In  accordance  with  what  has  been  said,  the  colour  of 
the  sunset  sky  would  be  reflected  chiefly  on  the  planes,  B 
and  E  ;  at  c  would  be  reflected  the  sky  behind  the  spec- 
tator, s,  whilst  at  D  would  be  seen  the  image  of  the  sky 
at  the  zenith. 

279.  What  is  here  shown  is  only  a  part  of  the  difficulty, 
for  in  the  diagram  only  one  direction  of  curvature  is  sup- 
posed, and  a  wave  is  often  made  up  of  curved  surfaces  in 
every  direction,    and    has  its    sides  covered  with    minor 
waves.      When,   in  addition    to  this,  we  remember    that 
water  as  found  in  lakes  is  seldom  quite  colourless,  owing 
to  particles  of  earthy   matter    held  in   suspension,   each 
particle  receiving  its  ray  of  variously  coloured  light,  and 
affecting  the  colour  of    the  water  accordingly,  the  com- 
plexity becomes  infinite  and  inimitable. 

280.  Sometimes  on  a  smooth  lake  there  is  what  Hamer- 
ton    appropriately    calls    *  invisible    motion '  —  a    slightly 
tremulous  movement  in  water,  entirely  invisible  in  itself, 
yet  strong  enough  to  elongate  a  reflection.     It  is  only  by 
this  elongation  of  reflection  that  we  can  become  conscious 
of  this  'invisible  motion.' 

281.  Sometimes  a  very  gentle  wind  will  come  down  on 
to  some  parts  of  a  lake,  rasping  its  surface  into  myriads  of 
wavelets,    and  leaving  other  parts  in   perfect  calm.     As 
the  wind  increases,  the  condition  of  the  water  becomes  a 
'ripple,'  in  which  every  recognisable  reflection  is  destroyed, 
and  then  the  water  often  becomes  leaden  in  colour. 

282.  Although    water     in     itself    may    be    considered 
colourless,  there  is  usually  in  it  some  matter  which  gives 


192  On  Water. 

it  a  decided  colour.     The  Rhine,  Lake  Lucerne,  Loch  Awe, 
are  all  different  in  colour  from  this  cause. 

283.  From  what  has  here  been   said  respecting  reflec- 
tions in  water,  it  will  be  evident  that,  though  the  principal 
laws  respecting  it  are  few  and  simple,  the  fads  connected 
with  it  are  so  varied  and  varying  that  it  is  seldom  safe  to 
attempt  a  representation  of  it,  either  in  its  wave  form  or 
in  the  rippling  brook,  except  in  the  immediate  presence  of 
Nature.     Neither  is  it  desirable  that  we,  in  our  ignorance, 
should  be  too  ready  to  criticise  the  works  of  those  who, 
after  having  lived  near  and  on  the  water,  and  studied  it 
in  its  infinitely  varying  phases,   declare  the  impossibility 
of  truly  representing  it. 

284.  Perhaps  the  most  truthful  painter  of  these  rest- 
less forms  at  the  present  time  is  Mr.  Francis  Powell,  who, 
by  living  amongst  them,  and  for  many  years  making  them 
his  objects  of  special  study,  has  attained  great  knowledge 
of  their  nature  and  great  skill  in  depicting  them. 


CHAPTER   XXXII. 

ON  SKIES. 

285.  THE  reasons  why  this    subject  is    brought   into 
this  work  are — 1st.  Because  it  is  usually  utterly  ignored 
by  most  teachers,  or  seldom  alluded  to  in  the  drawing-class 
except  in  the  most  casual  way.     2nd.  That  the  intelligent 
study  of  it  is  a  source  of  highest  and  purest  gratification. 
And,  3rd.  That  there  does  not  seem  to  be  known  any  recent 
small  work  that  could  be  put  into  the  hands  of  a  student 
as  a  sort  of  first  stepping-stone  towards  more  advanced 
knowledge  of  the  subject. 

286.  Buskin  says  : — *  It  is  a  strange  thing  how  little 
in  general  people  know  about  the  sky.     It  is  the  part  of 
creation  in  which  Nature  has  done  more  for  the  sake  of 
pleasing    man,    more    for  the    sole  and  evident    purpose 
of  talking  to  him  and  teaching  him,  than  in  any  other 
of  her  works,  and  it  is  just  the  part  in  which  we  least 
attend  to  her.     There  are  not  many  of  her  other  works  in 
which  some  more  material  or  essential  purpose  than  the 
mere  pleasing  of   man  is  not  answered  by  every  part  of 
their  organization  ;    but  every  essential  purpose    of    sky 
might,  so  far  as  we  know,  be  answered,  if  once  in  three 
days,  or  thereabouts,  a  great  rain-cloud  were  brought  up 
over  the  blue,  and  everything  well  watered,  and  so  all  left 
blue  again  till  next  time,  with  perhaps  a  film  of  morning 

13  193 


194  On  Skies. 

and  evening  mist  for  dew.  And  instead  of  this,  there  is 
not  a  moment  of  any  day  of  our  lives  when  Nature  is  not 
producing  scene  after  scene,  picture  after  picture,  glory 
after  glory,  and  working  still  upon  such  exquisite  and  con- 
stant principles  of  the  most  perfect  beauty,  that  it  is  quite 
certain  it  is  all  done  for  us,  and  intended  for  our  perpetual 
pleasure.' 

287.  By  sky  we  do  not  here  mean  merely  the  blue 
space  above  us,  but,  using  the  term  in  an  artistic  sense, 
the  clouds  also,  with  all  their  various  visible  phenomena 
and  infiniteness  of  variety. 

We  shall  give  only  such  hints  respecting  it  as  will  in 
some  measure  prepare  a  student  for  the  enjoyment  of  that 
part  of  our  world  to  which  we  owe  so  much,  and  yet  of 
which  we  observe  so  little. 

288.  The  earth  is  surrounded,  to  a  height  of  from  forty 
to  fifty  miles,  with  what    is  known  as  the  atmosphere, 
which  is  composed  of  various  fluids,  such  as  air,  aqueous 
vapour,  &c.,  and  which,  like  other  bodies,  gravitates  to- 
wards the  earth. 

Air,  one  of  these  fluids,  is  invisible,  colourless,*  elastic, 
and  easily  moved,  rarefied,  and  condensed.  It  is  seldom 
pure,  but  is  generally  mixed  with  water  in  a  vaporous 
and  invisible  state.  When  there  is  very  little  water  or 
vapour  in  the  air,  the  sky  appears  blue — not  like  a  painted 
ceiling  or  vault,  but  blue  space,  that  we  cannot  so  much 
look  at  as  into.  Let  this  be  well  remembered. 

289.  If  we  blow  from  a  pipe  of  tobacco  some  fumes 
*  Like  water,  its  colour  is  perceptible  only  in  deepest  depths. 


On  Skies.  195 

(unconsumed  tobacco),  the  particles  will  be  so  distended 
that  they  will  float  in  the  form  of  clouds  in  the  air. 

If  we  get  a  little  cotton  wool  and  roll  it  into  a  pellet 
or  marble  form,  we  by  this  means  make  it  so  dense  that  it 
may  be  thrown  some  distance,  or  it  may  fall  quickly  to 
the  earth.  Let  this  pellet  of  cotton  wool  represent  our 
drop  of  water.  If  it  be  pulled  out  or  extended  as  much 
as  possible,  it  will  become  so  light,  relatively  to  its  bulk, 
that  it  may  be  blown  about.  This  will  represent,  in  a 
rough  way,  our. drop  of  water  with  its  particles  so  separated 
that  it  will  float  in  the  form  of  cloud. 

290.  When  some  of  the  invisible  moisture  with  which 
the  air  is  charged  is  condensed  (i.  e.  its  particles  become 
closer)  through  a  chill,  it  immediately  assumes  visible  form 
as  vapour. 

If  the  air  happens  to  be  heavily  charged  with  this 
invisible  moisture,  and  is  then  suddenly  condensed,  the 
clouds  become  thick,  opaque,  and  heavy,  as  in  a  thunder- 
storm, and  fall  to  the  earth  in  large  drops. 

When  a  cloud  is  formed,  it  will  float  high  or  low 
according  to  its  density  in  proportion  to  the  surrounding 
atmosphere.  Thus,  then,  we  have  an  atmosphere  about 
us  more  or  less  charged  with  invisible  moisture,  amongst 
which  there  may  float  that  same  air,  locally  condensed  and 
made  visible,  in  the  form  of  clouds.  How  or  why  these 
forms  should  float  separately  in  a  liquid  of  the  same 
constituents  as  themselves  was  asked  many  thousand  years 
ago,  but  we  doubt  if  it  has  yet  been  fully  or  satisfactorily 
answered. 


196  On  Skies. 


291.  For    convenience    of     study    clouds    are    usually 
arranged  in  groups,  and  we  cannot  do  better  than  adopt 
Mr.  Ruskin's  arrangement  and  nomenclature  :  though  not 
fully  complete,  it  will  prepare  the  student  for  further  and 
fuller  observations. 

*  Thus  the  atmosphere  may  be  conveniently  considered 
as  divided  into  three  spaces  or  regions — the  upper  region, 
or  region  of  the  cirrus ;  the  central  region,  or  region  of 
the  stratus  ;  the  lower  region,  or  region  of  the  rain-cloud.' 

292.  '  The  CIRRI  may  be  looked  upon  as  never  formed 
below  an  elevation  of  at  least  15,000  feet' — never  touching 
even   the  highest    mountains  of    Europe.     '  They  are  the 
motionless    multitudinous    lines    of  delicate    vapour  with 

"which  the  blue  of  the  open  sky  is  commonly  streaked  or 
speckled  after  several  days  of  fine  weather.'  According  to 
their  shapes  they  are  vulgarly  known  as  '  mares'  tails '  or 
'mackerel'  skies,  and  are  often  arranged  in  almost 
parallel  lines,  and  sometimes,  when  driven  by  the  wind  and 
seen  in  perspective  retirement,  present  a  most  exquisite 
appearance.  Mr.  Ruskin  says,  *  They  differ  from  all  other 
clouds  in  having  a  plan  and  system  ;  whereas  other  clouds, 
though  there  are  certain  laws  which  they  cannot  break, 
have  yet  perfect  freedom  from  anything  like  a  relative 
and  general  system  of  government.' 

The  direction  of  the  wind  may  generally  be  determined 
by  the  shape  of  these  clouds,  though  they  themselves 
may  for  a  time  appear  motionless.  Owing  to  their 
quietness  and  multitude  they  may,  as  the  same  author 
remarks,  be  conveniently  designated  as  'cloud-flocks.' 


On  Skies.  19'7 

293.  The  CENTRAL  CLOUD  region,  or  STRATUS,  may  be 
considered  as  including  all  those  masses  of  visible  floating 
vapour  lying  between  the  cirri  and  the  true  rain-cloud. 
They  are  known  also  as  the  cumulus,  from  the  fact  of  their 
piling  up  in  huge  masses  over  each  other.     They  are  often 
so  large  that  they  cannot  be  seen  entire,  except  at  a  dis- 
tance of  some  miles  away,  and  as  they  are  often  so  seen 
in  perspective,  we  are  liable  to  forget  their  true  shapes  and 
formation,  and  what  is  going  on  amongst  them.      If  we 
were  to  stand  in  a  dye-house,  and  were  surrounded  by  caul- 
drons of  boiling  water,  we  should  have  a  very  miniature  of 
what  takes  place  in  the  formation  of  these  grand  shapes  on 
some  of  our  high  mountains. 

Sometimes  a  huge  mass  of  cumulus  will  be  piled  up, 
and  for  a  time  appear  almost  motionless,  till,  moved  by  a 
gentle  wind,  it  may  float  slowly  away,  gradually  changing 
its  form,  till,  having  travelled  perhaps  fifty  or  a  hundred 
miles,  it  becomes  elongated,  and  is  then  called  cumulo- 
stratus.  If  these  elongated  masses  are  at  a  great  elevation 
they  are  called  cirro-stratus.  Mr.  Euskin  gives  them  the 
appropriately  poetic  name  of  'cloud-chariots.' 

The  Figs.  154  and  155,  here  sketched,  will  give  only  a 
very  rough  and  imperfect  idea  of  the  piling  up  of  clouds, 
which  sometimes  rise  to  a  height  of  20,000  feet,  and  of  the 
effects  of  travel  upon  them. 

294.  It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  the  wind 
is  the  only  or  chief  agent  in  the  formation  and  shaping  of 
clouds,  so  much  as  the  change  of  temperature  arising  from 
electric  and  other  conditions,  for  in  some  cases  the  cloud 


200  On  Skies. 

is  the  cause  of  the  wind.  The  author  has  often  watched 
from  his  window*  masses  of  vapour,  following  each  other 
up  the  valley,  disappear  at  one  particular  place,  and  re-form 
again  as  soon  as  the  (probably)  warm  air  had  been  passed. 

295.  The  third  division  of  this  cloud  arrangement  is 
the  rain-cloud  region,  possibly  at  first  thought  not  so 
pleasant  to  contemplate,  yet  that  to  which  is  attributable 
most  of  the  daily  beauty  of  English  landscape.  It  must 
not  be  supposed  that  when  a  rain-cloud  is  spoken  of  it  is 
necessarily  in  a  state  of  rain ;  far  from  it.  The  clouds  of 
the  middle  region  already  referred  to  deposit  moisture,  if 
not  rain,  have  mostly  pure  aerial  greys  for  their  dark  sides, 
and,  owing  to  their  distance,  can  be  more  definitely  seen  in 
their  entirety  than  the  rain-clouds  proper.  The  nearness  of 
these  latter  prevents  some  of  the  characteristic  phenomena 
and  the  sometimes  definite  outline  being  easily  studied. 
They  are  often  only  thin  mist,  the  outline  of  which  can- 
not be  traced,  and  by  which  the  landscape  is  rendered 
indistinct.  Sometimes  this  mist  is  seen  in  definitive  form 
moving  along  in  columns,  and  its  lower  edges  fringed, 
'and  sometimes  twisted,  by  the  wind.  At  other  times, 
viewed  from  a  high  mountain,  it  may  be  seen  miles  away, 
floating  over  a  sunny  landscape  towards  the  spectator ; 
and  presently  it  may  envelop  him,  completely  conceal 
everything  more  than  ten  feet  away  from  him,  pass  away, 
and  leave  him  entirely  unwetted.  Occasionally  amongst 
the  mountains  a  cloud  may  be  seen  like  &  huge  monster 
crawling  slowly  about,  as  indicated  in  Fig.  156. 

*  Under  Kinder  Scout. 


On  Skies.  201 

Fig.  157  was  etched  from  a  photograph  taken  on  Pike 
Mount,  looking  down  on  to  an  ocean-like  mass  of  clouds. 
As  there  were  no  clouds  above  to  reflect  the  light  back  on 
to  the  shade  side  of  the  rocks,  they  are  nearly  black. 

296.  To  the  region  of  the  rain-cloud  belong  all  those 
phenomena  of  drifted  smoke,  heat-haze,  local  mists  in  the 
morning   or    evening,    in  valleys,    or    over    water,    white 
steaming  vapour  rising  from  moist  and  open  surfaces,  and 
everything  that  visibly  affects  the  condition  of  the  atmo- 
sphere    without    actually    assuming    the    form   of  cloud. 
These  phenomena  are  as  perpetual  in  all  countries  as  they 
are   beautiful,    and  afford  by  far  the  most  effective    and 
valuable  means  which   the  painter  possesses  for  modifica- 
tion of  the  forms  of  fixed  objects. 

297.  In    giving,  this    brief    and    necessarily    imperfect 
description   of  the  principal  regions,  into  which,  for  con- 
venience of  study,  the  firmament  is  divided,  no  allusion 
has    been   made  to  the    marvellous    exhibitions  of  colour 
which   frequently  present  themselves.     In  a  work  though 
devoted  to  this  subject  alone  it  would  be  utterly  impos- 
sible, even  in  these  days  of  advanced  scientific  inquiry,  to 
account  satisfactorily  for  many  of  the  infinite  phenomena, 
or  to  explain  luqidly  what  is  already  ascertained  of  their 
nature.     If  the  earth  on  which  he  treads  is  covered  with 
objects  for  the  student  to  study,  so  also  are  the  '  heavens ' 
and  the  firmament  filled  with  ever-changing  material  for 
contemplation ;  but    let    the    reverent    inquiry  be  on  his 
lips, — 'Dost  thou  know  the    balancings  of    the  clouds?' 
and  the  constant  conviction  on  his  heart  that  'HIS  ways 
are  past  finding  out.' 


CHAPTER    XXXIII. 

ON  DRAWING  FIGUBES  AND  ANIMALS. 

298.  IT  may  have  been  observed  that   the  teaching  of 
this  book  has  reference  chiefly  to  Landscape  Art;  there- 
fore   figures    are    here    treated    of  only  in  the  aspect  of 
accessories,  and  not  as  principal  features  in  a  picture. 

299.  If  the  student  wishes  to   draw  the  figure  other- 
wise  than    in    a  subordinate   relationship — if  he    seeks  to 
make    it   the  prominent    part  of  his  picture,   as  in  His- 
torical subjects — he  must  patiently  go   through  a  regular 
and  severe  course   of  study  from  the   cast  and  from  the 
living  model,   supplementing    it   with    Artistic   Anatomy. 
How     certainly    necessary    this    is     may    be     discovered 
if    the    student   will    attempt    to    draw   the    figure    of    a 
man    from    Nature    on    a    moderately    large  scale,  either 
still  or  in   motion,  previously  to  this  suggested  course  of 
training. 

Hence,  Figure-drawing  should  be  made  a  specialty, 
and  studied  apart  from  all  else,  that,  by  knowledge  and 
practice,  the  power  may  be  the  more  quickly  gained  to 
draw  it  with  perfect  accuracy,  for  of  all  false  repre- 
sentation, bad  figure-drawing  is  the  most  intolerable. 

300.  When  figures  occupy  an  important  place  in  the 

204 


On  Drawing  Figures  and  Animals.        205 

foreground  of  a  Landscape,  they  require  a  proportionate 
amount  of  attention  to  individuality  and  detail. 

Speaking  generally,  rocks,  trees,  foregrounds,  &c.,  are 
principal  elements  of  Landscape,  as  figures  are  in  Historical 
pictures,  and  the  same  amount  and  kind  of  study  that  is 
spent  on  the  one  ought  to  be  devoted  to  the  other. 

301.  But  even  when  figures  occupy  only  a  subordinate 
position  in  Landscape  work,  and  their  general  character 
only  is  required,  there  are  yet  difficulties  and  peculiarities 
which  will  demand  careful  attention  and  study. 

When  it  is  proposed  to  make  this  use  of  figures  or 
animals,  a  primary  consideration  ought  to  be,  Why  should 
they  be  introduced  ?  What  purpose  have  they  to  serve  ? 
What  figures  or  animals,  and  what  positions  or  arrange- 
ments, will  best  answer  the  purpose,  whether  for  the  idea 
of  activity,  or  repose,  or  any  other  ? 

The  introduction  of  figures  in  a  work  must,  of  course, 
be  governed  by  the  laws  of  composition  and  perspective : 
in  the  former  as  to  position,  posture,  and  relationship  to 
surroundings  (see  Chapter  on  Composition) ;  and  in  the 
latter  as  to  size. 

The  importance  of  the  right  introduction  of  living 
objects  in  a  drawing  will  be  more  strongly  felt  if  the  stu- 
dent will  cover  with  his  finger  the  figures  which  are  used 
in  Fig.  158,  or  even  the  birds  in  Fig.  159. 

302.  Perhaps  the    best    way  to    obtain  the  power  to 
draw  the    figure    for  Landscape   purposes  is  to  be  con- 
stantly   making    notes    and    memoranda    in    the    pocket 
sketch-book    of    all  sorts  of  figures,   in  every  variety  of 


208        On  Drawing  Figures  and  Animals. 

circumstance,  costume,  and  position,  combined  with  more 
deliberate  effort  on  a  larger  scale  whenever  opportunity 
may  occur.  And  in  making  such  notes  and  studies  a  first 
inquiry  should  be, — In  what  does  the  vitality,  and  spirit, 
and  charm  of  that  figure  lie  ?  and  then  the  aim  must  bo 
to  express  this.  It  will  often  be  found  in  a  scarcely  per- 
ceptible bend  of  line,  or  touch  of  dark,  or  in  some  subtle 
arrangement  of  colour. 

303.  If    we    consider    well     the     works    of    Turner, 
Stanfield,    Copley  Fielding,   J.    D.   Harding,  David  Cox, 
and    many    others,    we    shall  find    that    they    appear    to 
have  aimed  at  expressing  their  figures  and  animals  in  a 
general  way,   but  always  truly  in   their  forms  and  ten- 
dencies, seldom  attempting  any  detailed  facial  or  bodily 
expression.     They  should  be  drawn  as  they  would  be  felt 
when  looking  at  the  picture,  rather  than  as  seen  when 
looking  directly  at  them  alone.     If,  when  we  observe  one 
of  Prout's  figures,  we  expect  to  find  in  it  a*  likeness  to 
nature,  we  shall  be  disappointed  ;  but  his  figures  taken  as 
parts  of  a  whole  picture  are  in  admirable  ( keeping'  and 
harmony. 

304.  Some  elementary  rules  applicable  to  the   drawing 
of  figures  have  already  been  given  in  the  earlier  chapters 
of  this  book.     In  all  cases  both  figures  and  animals  should 
be  '  blocked  in,'  so  as  to  secure  their  correct  proportions, 
and  in  this  respect  no  examples  can  be  better  than  the 
figures  in  such  a  work  as  Prout's  Microcosm.* 

As  Prout's  work  may  not  be  readily  accessible  to  the 
*  A  number  of  these  are  reproduced  in  Lessons  on  Animals. 


On  Drawing  Figures  and  Animals.        209 

student,  a  few  simple  illustrations  are  given  in  Figs.  160, 
161,  and  162.  They  are  expressed  by  few  but  main  lines, 
which  suggest  blocks  in  shape. 


Fro.  160. 


FIG.  161. 


FIG.  162. 


In  Fig.  163,  after  J.  D.  Harding,  the  block-like  shapes 
are  somewhat  softened  and  rounded,  so  as  to  accord  with 
the  work  for  which  they  may  be  intended. 


FIG.  163. 


14 


CHAPTER    XXXIV. 

ON  CRITICISM. 

305.  No  person  goes  through  an  Art  Exhibition  with- 
out criticising,  and  usually  the  most  uncompromising 
critics  are  those  persons  who,  when  asked,  will  be  ready 
to  say  they  don't  know  much  about  it,  only  they  know 
what  they  like.  A  great  many  mistakes  are  made  byx 
persons  who  ought  to  know  better.  No  sensible  person 
would  venture  to  question  the  accuracy  of  a  work  on 
Chemistry  or  Geology,  but  almost  everybody  has  his 
opinion  one  way  or  other  about  Art,  and  seems  more 
anxious  to  get  truth  over  to  his  side  than  to  get  himself 
on  to  the  side  of  truth.  F.  W.  Eobertson  says,  *  For 

•/     ' 

every  kind  of  truth  a  special  capacity  or  preparation  is  in- 
dispensable.' Criticism,  like  most  other  arts,  has  its  rules 
and  modes  of  procedure.  It  should  be  indulged  in  sparingly 
by  a  student ;  Ms  work  should  be  that  of  inquiry  rather  than 
criticism  —  to  seek  knowledge  rather  than  to  pass  judg- 
ment, except  on  his  own  works.  Safe  and  accurate  Art 
criticism  can  only  result  from  a  knowledge  of  the  history 
of  Art,  of  its  principles  and  practice,  and  from  a  correct 
taste.  And  by  a  correct  taste  is  meant  the  faculty — 
whether  the  gift  of  nature  or  the  result  of  culture — by 
which  we  intuitively  and  instantly  select  that  which  is 

210 


On  Criticism.  211 


true  and  beautiful  in  preference  to  that  which  is  false 
or  ugly. 

306.  Whether  we  are  in  a  position  justly  to  judge  of 
an  historical  work  will  depend  largely  on  our  knowledge 
of  the  history  and  circumstances  of  the  particular  event 
represented.     In  the  case  of  a  landscape,  too,  so  varied  are 
the  appearances  in  any  one  locality  in  the  course  of  a  few 
hours,  that  in  the  work  of  an  able  and  honest  painter  there 
is  great  danger  of  error  in  criticism.      In  such  instances 
we  should  remember  that  the  work  we  propose  to  examine 
is  probably  the  result  of  much  deliberate  thought,  know- 
ledge, and  victorious  battle  with   difficulties,  totally  un- 
known to  the  critic,  and  that  the  artist,  having  put  his 
expressions  on  to   the  canvas,  however  unjust  his  critic 
may  be,  has  no  means  of  reply.     It  is  quite  painful  to  a 
sensible  man  to  hear  the  silly  and  thoughtless  remarks  of 
ignorant  pigmies,  as  they  sit  in  judgment  on  the  thoughtful 
works  of  great  artists. 

307.  In  public  criticism  the  attitude  of  the  critic  is 
supposed  to  be  strictly  judicial,  and  this  implies  not  only 
the  presence  of  evidence,  but  a  knowledge  of  the  character, 
condition,  and  application  of  such  evidence.     Further,  in 
criticism,  especially  when  it  happens  to  be  of  an  adverse 
kind,  it  should  always  be  considered  whether  the  author 
whose  work  is  under  review  has  the  opportunity  of  reply  or 
defence. 

308.  When,  as  students,  we  have  to  form  an  opinion  of 
a  work  of  art,  it  is  desirable  to  make  ourselves  acquainted 
with  the  central  or  main  idea  of  it,  and  then  to  consider 


212  On  Criticism. 


whether  or  not  the  artist  has  fully  and  fairly  overcome  the 
difficulties  that  may  have  surrounded  his  work,  whether 
that  work  be  imitative  and  simple,  or  great  and  creative. 

309.  'There  are  two  marks  which  characterize  every 
really  great  work  of  fine  art.'  *  The  first  of  these  marks  is 
that  it  must  embody  a  creative  thought,  that  it  must  exhibit 
the  power  of  the  human  spirit  to  seize,  shape,  vivify,  and 
subdue  under  its  own  dominion  the  dead  matter  of  un- 
formed impression  presented  to  the  mind  in  the  two 
universes  of  external  nature  and  internal  feeling.  And 
then,  in  addition  to  this  character  of  creativeness,  a  second 
mark  is  required  to  distinguish  aesthetic  from  scientific 
production.  While  Science  values  each  new  thought  only 
as  a  fresh  step  towards  the  intellectual  comprehension  of 
the  whole  universe,  the  artist  confines  himself  to  thoughts 
which  possess  for  him  a  value  quite  independent  of  the 
inference  that  may  be  drawn  from  them  for  a  more 
general  body  of  truth — thoughts  to  which  he  can  give  a 
more  general  expression,  without  caring  to  use  them  as  a 
means  to  a  remoter  end.  In  a  word,  every  work  of  art  is 
a  product  of  creative  thought,  having  its  end  within  itself. 
In  Science  the  joy  of  each  new  attainment  is  absorbed  in 
the  fresh  impulse  to  further  pursuit  of  truth ;  the  search 
for  knowledge,  knows  no  rest  till  the  whole  universe  lias 
been  subdued.  A  work  of  Fine  Art  points  to  no  end 
beyond  itself,  and  urges  directly  to  no  activity  save  that 
of  enjoying  to  the  full  the  satisfaction  that  accompanies 

*  This  view  of  the  character  of  Fine  Art  is  ably  expressed  in  an 
article  in  the  British  Quarterly  Review  for  January,  1877. 


On  Criticism.  213 


'every  exertion    of    completed    mastery  of    thought    over 
matter.' 

310.  Although    a    fine    work    of    art    must    in    some 
measure,  and   sometimes  in  a  great  measure,  be  imitative 
of  nature,  yet  it  is  so  only  in  the  highest  sense  when  it 
partakes  of  the  nature  of  a  creative  act. 

It  is  with  such  views  of  Art  in  our  minds  that  we 
should  approach  the  object  of  criticism ;  for  assuredly,  if 
we  criticise  a  work  ignorantly  or  unjustly,  whether  we 
injure  the  work  or  its  author  or  not,  we  damage  ourselves, 
and  criticism  indulged  in  without  reason,  large  knowledge, 
and  a  sound  mind,  may  soon  develop  into  cynicism. 

311.  We  cannot  but  think  that    the  unmeasured  and 
severe    remarks  of  our  most    elegant    Art    critic,    John 
Euskin,    in  some  of  his  early  writings  on  the  works  of 
living   artists,  was   not    only  a  presumption    and    an  un- 
generous act,  but  also  mischievous  in  making  a  precedent 
which  has  unfortunately  become  a  fashion   amongst  un- 
learned people.     Obiter  dicta,  equally  in  criticism  as  well 
as  in  discussion,  should  have  no  place ;  and  criticism,  when 
it  condemns,  should  give  its  reasons. 


PART  II. 


CHAPTEE   XXXV. 

ON  PERSPECTIVE. 
INTRODUCTOKY  KEMARKS. 

312.  MANY  people    imagine    that  anybody  with    eyes 
must  surely  be  able  to  see  correctly  the  appearances  of 
things  without  the  trouble  of  learning  Perspective  ;    but 
most  persons  need  only  make  the  attempt  to  draw  a  few 
rectangular  objects,  such  as  books,  boxes,  or  doors,  to  dis- 
cover how  uncertain  and  helpless  they  are  in  the  matter  of 
seeing. 

313.  The    fundamental    principles  of    Perspective    are 
extremely  simple,  and  may  be  understood  by  a  child ;  but 
the  technical  application  of  its  rules  to  irregular  and  com- 
plicate forms  is  difficult,  and  may  tax  the  powers  of  an  able 
mathematical  mind. 

314.  It  is  important  that   the    term    should    be  well 
understood,  as  there  is  often  much   misapprehension  and 
confusion  respecting  it  as  a  science,  both  theoretically  and 
in  its  application. 

In  nine  cases  out  of  every  ten  objects  appear  different 
from  what  they  really  are;  Perspective,  therefore,  may  be 

215 


216  On  Perspective. 


briefly  defined  as  the  art  of  representing  things  as  they 
appear  to  the  eye  of  a  spectator,  and  as  the  science  which 
enables  us  to  represent  objects  when  they  appear  different 
from  Avhat  they  really  are. 

315.  Practically,  Linear  Perspective  may  be  divided 
into  Artistic  Perspective,  as  used  by  artists,  and  Technical 
Perspective,  as  used  by  architects  and  others.  In  the  one 
case  the  Perspective  is  evolved  from  the  object,  as  when  an 
artist  sketches  from  Nature  ;  whilst  in  the  other,  the  object 
grows  out  of  the  application  of  the  rules  of  Perspective. 

When  an  artist  sketches  from  Nature — say,  some  build- 
ings— he  makes  certain  observations,  such  as  the  level  of 
his  eye  on  the  buildings,  the  inclination  of  any  principal 
receding  lines,  by  which  he  determines  his  vanishing  points, 
&c.;  and  these  observations,  together  with  pencil-in-hand 
measurement,  furnish  him  with  much  of  what  he  will 
require  to  get  the  work  in  true  perspective. 

These  'observations,'  accurately  made,  form  the  'data' 
by  which  he  will  work  out  his  outline,  and  thus,  as  his 
observations  are  made  from  the  objects  themselves,  the 
Perspective  grows  out  of  the  act  of  drawing. 

31G.  An  architect  often  requires  a  view  of  buildings, 
which  he  intends  to  erect,  before  they  have  any  existence  in 
fact.  Of  these  intended  buildings  he  will  require  to  have 
'ground-plans,' 'elevations,'  'measurements,' &c.,  together 
with  certain  'data'  (to  be  hereafter  explained);  and  from 
these,  by  the  rules  of  Perspective,  he  will  be  able  to  show 
his  edifice  as  it  will  actually  appear  when  erected. 

317.  The    purpose    of    Perspective   covers    much  more 


On  Perspective.  217 


than  the  representation  of  regular  forms,  such  as  boxes, 
buildings,  &c.  ;  it  has  to  do  with  the  form  and  size  of 
every  object,  regular  or  irregular,  that  comes  before  the 
eye — with  the  form  according  to  its  position,  and  with  the 
size  according  to  its  distance.  Even  in  the  little  sprigs  or 
whorls  of  Oak  (Figs.  164 
and  165),  every  leaf  is  in 
perspective;  so,  also,  it  is 
with  an  entire  tree.  It  is 
the  forgetting  of  this  fact 
that  causes  many  persons  in 
drawing  trees  to  fail,  because  FIG.  164.  PIG.  165. 

they  make  the  leaves  at  the  top  and  sides  of  the  tree  as  large 
as  those  which  are  nearest.  In  figure  drawing  it  is  equally 
applicable,  from  the  foreshortening  of  a  finger-nail  to  that 
of  an  arm  or  a  leg. 

The  work  of  Perspective,  then,  is  to  translate  FACTS  into 
appearances. 

318.  There  are  two  kinds  of  Perspective,  Linear  and 
Aerial ;  the  former  concerns  itself  with  the  appearances 
of  objects  as  they  are  represented  by  lines,  and  the  latter 
as  they  are  affected  by  the  atmosphere.  (See  Chapter 
on  Skies.) 

Hence  we  should  never  forget  that  we  are  constantly 
surrounded  by  Perspective — Aerial  or  Linear — in  almost 
everything  we  look  at. 


CHAPTER   XXXVI. 


ON  AETISTIO  PEESPECTIVE. 

319.  WHAT  is  here  termed  ' Artistic'  or  'Pictorial 
Perspective'  is  the  method  constantly  used  in  drawing 
from  Nature ;  and  some  hints  and 
.  illustrations  respecting  it  are  given, 
beginning  with  a  very  simple  ex- 
ample, the  parallel  view  of  a  cube, 
as  seen  in  Fig.  166.  Here  the  cube* 
must  be  put  not  only  parallel,  but 
directly  in  front  of  the  spectator. 
)  In  copying  it  from  the  model,  first 
draw  the  front  square ;  then  deter- 
mine the  relative  height  of  the  eye  with  regard  to  it 
in  order  to  fix  the  vanishing  point,  which  in  parallel 
perspective  is  not  only  on  a  level  with  the  eye,  but  always 


*  A  cube-^-tho  larger  the  better — should 
be  placed  before  the  student  in  all  exercises 
in  Perspective.  One  may  readily  be  made  of 
cardboard,  thus : — Cutting  the  board  half 
through  where  the  dotted  lines  are,  that  it 
may  fold  more  easily  (see  Fig.  167).  A  set  of 
cubic  models  would  be  of  great  service,  as 
affording  greater  variety. 


FIG.  166. 


On  Artistic  Perspective.  219 

opposite  to  it.  Towards  this  point  draw  lines  from  A 
and  B.  Next  ascertain  by  pencil-in-hand  measurement 
(see  Appendix  C)  the  apparent  height  of  the  back  line 
from  A  B,  and  draw  it  parallel  to  A  B.  A  book  placed  in 
front  of  the  spectator,  like  Fig.  168,  would  be  drawn  in 
this  manner.  A  parallel  view  of  an  object  may  be  defined 
simply  as  one  having  its  principal  plane  parallel  to  the 
spectator,  and  clearly  visible  without  moving  the  eye.  If 
the  eye  moves,  the  view  at  once  becomes  panoramic.  The 
angle  of  vision,*  though  to  a  limited  extent  optional, 


FIG.  168. 

should  not  exceed  60°,  especially  in  the  representation 
of  right-angled  forms.  This  limited  angle  of  vision  is 
less  important  when  representing  irregular  forms,  such  as 
mountains,  trees,  or  clouds. 

320.  Fig.  169  is  the  same  cube  as  seen  when  placed  a 
little  below  the  eye  and  to  the  left  of  the  spectator,  and 
should  be  drawn  in  the  same  manner  from  the  model.     The 
height  of  the  back  line  from  the  front  square,  obtained  as 
in  the  previous  case,  determines  the  width  of  the  side.     The 
chair  in  Fig.  170  Avould  be  drawn  in  the  same  manner. 

321.  Where    there    are    several    parallel    faces,  as    in 

Fig.   171,  all  the  front  planes  should  first  be  drawn,  and 

» 

*  Known  as  the  '  cone  of  visual  rays.'    (See  Chapter  XXXVII.) 


FIG.  169. 


FIG.  170. 


FIG.  171. 


PIG.  173. 


FIG.  173. 


222 


On  Artistic  Perspective^ 


then  the  vanishing  point  and  distance  of  back  line  deter- 
mined on,  as  in  the  previous  cases.  Some  objects — as,  for 
instance,  a  flight  of  steps  —  it  would  be  almost  impossi- 
ble to  draw  correctly  without  a  fixed  vanishing  point, 


VP 

/^ 


Fro.  174. 

whereas  with  a  point,  and  by  means  of  this  simple  mode 
of  procedure,  the  work  is  made  quite  easy. 

322.  When  one  block  or  object  stands  nearer  to  the 
spectator  than  another,  as  in  Fig.  172  or  173,  it  is 
best  to  complete  the  front  block  first,  and  afterwards  to 
draw  the  one  behind. 


On  Artistic  Perspective. 


223 


323.  In  Fig.  174  is  shown  how  cubes  may  be  repre- 
sented when  transparent,  and  in  Fig.  175  how  a  number 
may  be  represented  in  proper  retirement  behind  each 
other.  When  the  first,  or  middle  cube,  has  been  accu- 
rately drawn,  the  others  may  be  readily  found  by  using 


FIG.  175 

the  same  vanishing  point,  and  in  the  latter  figure  the 
diagonal  line  from  A,  which  bisects  F  E,  and  gives  the 
proportionate  width  of  the  next  squares. 

324.  In  each  of  the  foregoing  examples  the  object  has 
been  represented  as  seen  below  the  eye,  and  consequently 
with  all  the  receding  lines  slanting  upwards  towards  the 
vanishing  point  opposite  to  the  eye.  If  the  objects, 


224 


On  Artistic  Perspective. 


however,  be  placed  above  the  eye, 
like  the  upper  cubes  in  Fig.  176, 
the  receding  lines  will  slant  down- 
wards towards  the  horizontal  line. 
The  iron-wrought  covering  of  a 
large  railway  station,  seen  from  one 
end,  affords  a  good  illustration  of 
this  recedence  of  lines  to  a  point. 

325.  The  room  given  in  Fig.  177 
presents  an  instructive  example  of 
parallel  perspective.  The  farther 
end  of  the  room,  being  parallel  to 
the  spectator,  remains  its  true  shape, 
but  the  sides,  together  with  the  pic- 
tures, and  the  floor  and  ceiling,  are 
all  retiring  planes ;  consequently 
the  retiring  lines  bounding  them  all 
tend  towards  a  point  opposite  the 
eye  —  the  vanishing  point,  those 
lines  which  are  above  it  slanting 
downwards,  those  which  are  below 
it  slanting  upwards.  The  same  rule 
will  govern  the  lines  of  the  sofa, 
fender,  and  the  two  distant  chairs, 
but  not  the  door  and  nearest  chair,  as 
these  are  not  in  the  same  plane.  It 
may  be  remarked,  however,  that  the 

representation  of    ordinary  rooms    is    seldom  satisfactory, 
from  the  fact  that  the    spectator  cannot  get  far  enough 


FIG.  176. 


226 


On  Artistic  Perspective. 


back,  so  as  to  see  the  distant  end  of  the  room  without 
having  too  wide  a  visual  angle ;  unless,  indeed,  the  apart- 
ment be  a  very  long  one. 

The  readiest  way  to  represent  an  apartment  in  parallel 
perspective  is  to  begin  by  drawing  the  further  end  of  the 
room  (its  true  shape),  fixing  the  vanishing  point,  then 
placing  the  ruler  to  it,  and  ruling  through  each  corner 
of  the  room  backwards,  as  shown  in  the  small  diagram 
(Fig.  178). 


FIG.  178. 

320.  When  large  objects,  such  as  trees,  buildings,  &c., 
are  represented  with  their  receding  lines  slanting  upwards, 
thus  indicating  that  they  are  below  the  eye,  as  in  Fig.  179, 
the  spectator  has  what  is  "known  as  a  bird's-eye  view. 

327.  Hitherto  we  have  concerned  ourselves  only  with 
receding  lines  which  were  parallel  to  the  ground  plane, 
and  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  the  spectator.  In 
Fig.  180  there  is  a  receding  plane  on  the  top  of  A  B  c  D, 
which  is  not  horizontal,  and  the  receding  lines  of  which 
would  not  vanish  on  the  level  of  the  eye,  but  far  above  it, 


On  Artistic  Perspective. 


227 


FIG.  179. 


FIG.  180. 

as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  E  F.  The  point  in  which 
these  lines  would  meet  is  called  an  '  accidental '  vanishing 
point.  Figs.  181  and  182  are  further  examples. 


228 


On  Artistic  Perspective. 


The   rough   sketches  (Figs.    183   and   184)   may  better 
illustrate  this.     In  each  case  the  receding  lines  formed  by 


FIG.  181. 


the  divisions  of  the  stones  are  felt  to  be  retiring  towards 
a  vanishing  point  that  would  be  level  with  the  eye, 
because  'coursed'  buildings  have  always  their  stones  in 
horizontal  layers  or  'courses;'  but  the  retiring  markings 


FIG.  183. 


,7 


230 


On  Angular  Perspective. 


on  the  road,  in  the  former,  would  evidently  terminate  far 
above  the  horizontal  line,  which  is  in  this  case  about  the 
bottom  of  the  window :  consequently  we  are  conscious 
that  the  road  rises  as  it  recedes.  In  Fig.  184,  because 
the  lines  of  the  road  are  retiring  below  the  horizontal  line, 
we  infer  that  the  road  is  down-hill.  In  all  these  cases 
the  views  are  parallel  to  the  spectator. 


FIG.  185. 


ANGULAR  PERSPECTIVE. 

328.  Angular  or  Oblique  Perspective  is  the  term  used 
when  objects  have  an  angle  presented  towards  the  spec- 
tator, as   in   Fig.  185,  also  in  Fig. 

186,  where  it  will   be   seen  that  as 

both  the  right  and  left-hand  sides 
of  the  cube  re- 
tire, there  must 
be  two  vanishing 

points  towards  which    the  receding 

lines  will  tend. 

329.  In    drawing    objects    from* 
Nature,  when  they  are  thus  oblique 

to  the  spectator,  it  is  well  to  adopt  a  methodical  mode 
of  operation,  thus  : — 

(1.)  First  determine  the  length,  and  draw  the  front 
line,  as  A  B,  Fig.  187. 

(2.)  Determine  the  distance  laterally  of  the  lines  c  D 
and  E  F,  and  draw  them  indefinitely. 

(3.)  Ascertain  the  relative  height  of  the  eye  above  the 


FIG.  186. 


232 


On  Angular  .Perspective. 


cube,  and  at  that  height  draw  a  line  across  the  paper. 
This  line  is  known  as  the  H.  L.,  and  is  used  for  placing  the 
vanishing  points  on. 

(4.)  Ascertain  accurately  the  angles  at  which  the 
lines,  B  F  and  B  D,  respectively  retire  (by  comparing  them 
with  a  horizontal  line),  and  produce  them  until  they  meet 
the  H.  L.  •  This  junction  will  give  the  vanishing  points  to 
which  all  the  other  receding  lines  must  be  drawn ;  and 
thus  the  figure  will  be  completed. 

In  adopting  this  method  of  drawing  from  Nature,  it  is 
of  little  consequence  whether  the  sides  of  the  object  retire 
at  an  equal  angle  from  the  spectator  or  not.  It  must  be 
observed,  however,  that  the  vanishing  point  will  be  near 
on  the  side  which  retires  rapidly,  whilst  on  the  side  which 
does  not  retire  so  sud- 


denly it  will  be  further 
away  on  the  H.  L.  If  the 
sides  retire  equally,  the 
points  will  be  equally  dis- 
tant on  each  side  of  the 
spectator. 

330.  Suppose  it  is  de- 
sired to  represent  another 
cube  immediately  behind 
that  which  has  been  already  drawn,  a  diagonal  line  from  A 
(Fig.  188),  bisecting  E  F,  and  continuing  to  the  receding 
line,  will  give  the  proportionate  distance  of  the  next  ver- 
tical line,  as  at  K,  from  the  top  of  which  a  line  must  be 
drawn  to  the  left-hand  vanishing  point,  and  the  second  cube 


FIG.  188. 


On  Angular  Perspective. 


233 


•will  be  completed,  in  exact  proportion  with  the  first.     This 
process  may  be  carried  further  to  any  extent,  as  in  Fig.  189. 


FIG.  189. 


FIG.  190. 

331.  If  the  object  be  so  placed  as  to  be  partly 
above  and  partly  below  the  eye,  as  we  ordinarily  see  in 
buildings  (Fig.  190),  the  receding  lines,  as  before  shown, 


234 


On  Angular  Perspective. 


\ 


will  appear  to  slant  down  or  up  re* 
spectively  towards  the  H.  L.,  as  the 
case  may  be.  Fig.  191  will  illustrate 
this  in  the  single  cube,  and  when 
several  are  placed  on  each  other  they 
will  appear  as  shown  in  Fig.  176. 
The  application  of  these  rules  may  be 
seen  in  the  representation  of  many 
familiar  household  objects,  as  in 
Figs.  192,  193,  and  194,  as  well  as 
in  the  various  woodcuts  of  buildings 
throughout  this  work. 

332.  When  an  object  is  so  placed 
that  its  receding  lines  are  not  parallel 
to  the  ground  plane    (level  ground), 
they  will  meet  in  what  is  known  as 
an  accidental  vanishing  point,  above 
or  below  the  H.  L.,  according  to  the 
inclination   of  the  object,  as  already 
referred  to  in  1  327. 

333.  From     the    remarks     which 
have     here     been     made    respecting 
Artistic  Perspective,  it  will  be  seen 
that    when    the   artist   has    obtained 
certain     facts    (which    in    Technical 
Perspective  would  be  data),  he  may 
proceed  with   his  sketch   easily,  and 
with  as  near  an  approximation  to  truth 
as    in    any     ordinary     circumstances 


On  Angular  Perspective. 


235 


FIG.  192. 


FIG.  193. 


FIG.  194. 


236  On  Angular  Perspective. 


would  be  required  ;  whereas,  where  there  is  no  knowledge 
of  perspective  rules,  the  student  must  be  constantly  on  the 
watch  to  get  every  part  in  its  proper  place,  and  even  then  he 
cannot  be  sure  of  anything  approaching  absolute  accuracy. 

Even  when  a  complicate  group  of  objects  has  to  be 
drawn,  to  which  these  simple  rules  do  not  altogether 
apply,  as  in  Fig.  195,  and  where  we  are  greatly  dependent 
on  auxiliary  lines,  the  knowledge  of  "these  rules  will 
greatly  assist  the  draughtsman  in  obtaining  an  accurate 
representation.  And  although  these  auxiliary  lines, 
vanishing  points,  receding  lines,  &c.,  may  not  necessarily 
be  drawn  on  the  paper,  they  should  be  in  the  mind  (like 
the  rules  of  grammar),  ready  for  instant  application,  to 
determine  the  direction  of  a  line  or  to  test  the  accuracy  of 
one  already  drawn.  They  always  exist  in  the  mind  of 
an  intelligent  artist,  and  constitute,  in  fact,  part  of  the 
mental  mechanism  by  which  he  sees,  and,  so  far  as  lines 
are  concerned,  delineates  accurately.  Neither  must  these 
aids  be  supposed  to  apply  to  buildings  or  cubes  alone,  for 
they  are  of  great  service  when  drawing  trees,  animals,  and 
the  human  figure. 

334.  It  may  be  remarked,  that  when  the  student  has 
clearly  understood  and  can  put  in  practice  the  hints 
contained  in  this  chapter,  he  will  have  acquired  all  the 
perspective  that  is  necessary  to  the  practical  work  of  a 
landscape  artist.  These  lines,  after  all,  are  but  the  skeleton 
of  various  forms,  and  are  science  rather  than  art.  Their 
rigidity  should  be  broken,  and  they  should  afterwards  be 
clothed  with  all  the  artistic  feeling  of  which  the  student 
is  capable. 


CHAPTER     XXXVII. 

ON  TECHNICAL  PERSPECTIVE.* 

335.  TECHNICAL  Perspective,  as  used  by  architects,  is 
of  little  service  to  a  student  in  drawing  from  Nature,  as 
the  simplest  object  cannot  be  drawn  truly  without  a 
wearisome  array  of  measurements  according  to  scale,  eleva- 
tion, ground  plan,  and  other  data.  From  these,  by  the  aid 
of  various  rulers  and  compasses,  a  correct  drawing  may  with 
some  labour  be  obtained. 

Nevertheless,  the  mode  of  developing  an  object  by 
measurements  and  the  rules  of  Perspective,  will  here  be 
shown,  that  the  student  may  have  some  idea  of  what  labour 
is  involved  in  such  architectural  presentations  as  are  often 
seen  before  an  important  building  is  erected,  and  also  that 
he  may  have  some  knowledge  of  the  science  in  its  element- 
ary stages,  f 

And  first  we  will  name,  and  afterwards  explain,  some 
of  the  terms  used  in  this  science,  in  various  works,  and  as 


illustrated  in  Diagram  1 : — 

GROUND  PLANE. 

GROUND  PLAN. 

PICTURE  PLANE, 

PICTURE   LINE,   OR  GROUND 

LINE,  OR  BASE  LINE. 
ELEVATION. 
POINT  OF  SIGHT. 


CENTRE  OF  VISION. 
STATION  POINT. 

STATION  LINE,  OR  LINE  OF  DI- 
RECTION, OR  DISTANCE  LINE. 
HORIZONTAL  LINE. 
CONE  OF  VISUAL  RAYS. 
VANISHING  POINTS. 


*  In  going  through  these  problems  the  student  should  place  models 
before  him  whilst  working. 

f  It  must  be  remembered  that  this  is  not  a  treatise  on  Perspective. 

338 


On  Technical  Perspective. 


239 


THE  GEOUND  PLANE  is  the  ground  on  which  the  plan  is 
placed. 

GEOUND  PLAN. — If  the  foot  be  pressed  on  some  soft  clay, 
so  as  to  make  an  impression  on  it,  that  impression  would 
be  the  ground  plan  of  the  foot ;  or  if  a  house  were  lifted 
away  from  its  place  on  the  ground,  the  marks  left  on  the 
ground  would  be  the  ground  plan  of  the  house.  The 
square  (Fig.  196)  is  the  ground  plan  of  a  cube,  a  pyramid, 
or  any  object  having  a  square  base,  and  viewed  with  one 
side  parallel  to  the  spectator.  The  circle  (Fig.  197)  is  the 
ground  plan  of  a  cone  or  a  cylinder. 


FIG.  196.  FIG.  197. 

Fig.  198  shows  the  ground  plan  of  three  cubical  forms, 
when  seen  in  angular  perspective,  and  might,  by  the  rules 
of  Perspective,  be  developed  into  Figs.  199  or  200 ;  and 
Fig.  201  might  in  like  manner  be  developed  into  Figs.  202, 
203,  or  204. 

THE  PIOTUEE  PLANE — the  'plane  of  delineation,'  or  'the 
picture' — is  the  plane  (whether  of  glass,  paper,  canvas,  &c.) 
on  which  the  drawing  or  'projection '  is  to  be  made.  It  .is 
quite  indefinite  in  extent,,  and  in  working  may  be  considered 
as  transparent.  . 


FIG.  198. 


FIG.  199. 


FIG.  200. 


FIG.  201. 


FIG.  202. 


FIG.  203. 


242 


On  Technical  Perspective. 


THE  PICTURE  LINE,  or  Ground  Line,  or  Base  Line,  is  the 
line  forming  the  bottom  edge  of  the  picture  plane,  and  rest- 
ing on  the  ground  plane. 

THE  ELEVATION  is  the  upright  view  of  an  object,  as  seen 
when  directly  in  front  of  the  spectator.  A  square  is  the 
elevation  of  a  cube,  as  well  as  its  ground  plan. 


FIG.  204. 

THE  POINT  OF  SIGHT  is  the  point  on  the  picture  plane 
exactly  opposite  the  spectator's  eye,  and  is  sometimes  called 
the  '  Sight  Point/ 

THE  OENTEE  OF  VISION  is  that  point  on  the  picture  plane 
which  is  exactly  opposite  to  the  point  of  sight — i.  e.  the 
eye  of  the  spectator — and  is  sometimes  called  the  Sight 
Point,  or  the  principal  visual  ray. 


On  TecJinical  Perspective.  243 

THE  STATION  POINT  is  simply  the  distance  of  the  spectator's 
eye  from  the  picture,  and  is  called  in  various  works  either 
Station  Point  or  Point  of  Distance. 

THE  STATION  LINE,  or  '  Line  of  Direction,'  or  '  Distance 
Line,'  is  the  line  between  the  spectator's  eye  and  the 
centre  of  the  picture.  It  is  the  same  as  the  '  principal 
visual  ray.' 

THE  HORIZONTAL  LINE  (imaginary  in  Nature)  is  a  line 
drawn  across  the  picture,  always  and  exactly  on  a  level 
with  the  spectator's  eye.  If  he  be  high  up,  then  the  H.  L. 
is  high  ;  if  he  be  low  down,  then  it  is  low. 

THE  CONE  OF  VISUAL  EAYS--This  is  but  another  term  for 
Angle  of  Vision, — the  angle  at  which  we  can  comfortably 
view  any  objects.  It  is  usually  limited  to  GO0,  i.  e.  30°  on 
each  side  of  the  Line  of  Direction.  This  limitation  is 
necessary  only  when  representing  regular  bodies,  and  does 
not  apply  to  mountains,  trees,  &c. 

THE  VANISHING  POINTS  are  points  on  the  horizontal  line 
in  which  all  horizontal  receding  lines  meet.  When  receding 
lines  are  oblique  to  the  ground  they  meet  in  Accidental 
vanishing  points,  above  or  below  the  horizontal  line. 

This  array  of  terms  may  at  first  sight  appear  for- 
midable, but  it  will  bs  made  clearer  by  reference  to 
Diagram  1,  showing  a  simple  appliance  used  by  the 
Author  in  elementary  teaching,  and  Diagrams  2  and  3, 
showing  the  same  in  profile,  and  also  laid  down  as  a  flat 
diagram. 

336.  Before  we  proceed  to  work  the  problems,  we 
must  urge  the  student  to  make  himself  familiar  with 


. 

O  O 


C.   Centre  of  Vltloa 


Una  of  Direction 


Station  Point 


Ground    Plane 

DIAGRAM  2. 


Station  Point 

DIAGRAM  3. 


246  On  Technical  Perspective. 

every  part  of  these  three  diagrams,  as  his  success  in  the 
following  figures  will  be  thereby  greatly  facilitated.  In 
working,  the  diagrams  should  be  made  to  scale,  and  much 
larger  than  those  here  given. 

It  will  be  observed  that  in  all  perspective  problems 
the  picture  or  ground  line,  the  ground  plan,  the  horizontal 
line,  and  the  line  of  direction  (one  end  of  which  is  the 
station  point  and  the  other  the  centre  of  the  picture),  are 
given,  and  form  the  data. 

To  render  the  diagrams  and  explanations  more  simple, 
these  'data '  are  shown  in  thin ;  the  working  lines  in  dotted; 
and  the  result  in  broad  lines. 


On  Technical  Perspective.  247 

EXPLANATION  OF  DIAGRAM  4. 
HOW  TO  FIND  DISTANCE  POINTS  AND  VANISHING  POINTS. 

Always  first  lay  down  the  ground  line,  horizontal  line, 
and  line  of  direction.  Place  the  compass  point  on  c  (cen- 
tre of  vision),  and  with  space  c  s  (station  point)  mark  on 
the  horizontal  line  to  the  right  and  left  of  c.  These  are 
the  Distance  Points. 

NOTE. — The  distance  points  are  the  vanishing  points  for 
all  lines  receding  at  an  angle  of  45°. 

Receding  lines  will  touch  the  H.  L.  according  to  the 
angle  at  which  they  are  to  the  plane  of  the  spectator  : 
i.  e.  if  the  line  retires  suddenly  away,  its  vanishing  point 
will  be  near  the  centre  of  vision  ;  but  if  the  line  retires 
gently,  or  is  nearly  parallel  to  the  s|>ectator,  its  vanishing 
point  will  be  far  away  from  the  centre  of  vision,  yet  on 
the  H.  L. 

To  find  the  vanishing  point  for  any  line,  first  draw  a 
horizontal  line  at  s,  then  set  off  on  it  the  angle  which  the 
line  forms  with  the  G.  L.  (ground  line)  ;  produce  the  line 
thus  set  off  till  it  meets  the  H.  L.,  which  will  give  the 
vanishing  point  of  that  line. 

DIAGRAM  5. 

In  this  diagram  the  means  by  which  vanishing  points 
for  various  lines,  A  B  D  E  F,  may  be.  found  are  shown,  but  the 
student  should  work  each  of  these  various  lines  separately. 


On  TecJinical  Perspective.  249 

Beginning  with  line  A,  it  will  be  found  to  form  an  angle 
of  GO0  with  the  base  or  ground  line  (G.  L.  ) ;  therefore  from 
the  horizontal  line  s  draw  a  line  to  the  left  at  60°,  and 
produce  it  till  it  touches  the  H.  L.,  which  will  give  the 
vanishing  point  for  the  line  at  a. 

The  line  B  is  at  an  angle  of  40°  with  the  base  or  ground 
line,  therefore  from  the  line  s  draw  a  line  to  the  left  at  40°, 
and  produce  it  till  it  meet  the  H.  L.  at  b,  which  is  the  van- 
ishing point  for  the  line. 

The  line  D  forms  an  angle  of  50°  with  the  ground  line, 
therefore  from  the  line  s  draw  a  line  at  the  same  angle 
(50°)  to  the  right,  and  extend  it  to  the  H.  L.,  which  will 
give  the  v.  p.  of  the  line  at  d. 

The  line  E  is  at  an  angle  of  35°  with  the  ground  line, 
therefore  from  the  line  s  draw  a  line  to  the  H.  L.,  at  an 
angle  of  35°,  which  will  give  the  v.  P.  at  e. 

Lastly,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  line  F,  being  at  an 
angle  of  only  10°  with  the  ground  line,  is  nearly  parallel 
to  the  spectator,  and,  therefore,  that  its  vanishing  point 
will  be  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  centre  of  the 
picture,  as  will  be  evident  on  drawing  a  line  from  s  at  an 
angle  of  10°  to  the  left.  Of  course  there  is  not  room  to 
show  it  on  this  sheet. 

NOTE. — It  will  be  observed,  that  if  a  line  whose  vanish- 
ing point  is  required  inclines  to  the  right,  the  vanishing 
point  will  be  to  the  left,  on  the  horizontal  line. 

It  has  already  been  observed,  that  lines  retiring  from 
the  ground  line  at  an  angle  of  45°  have  their  vanishing 
points  in  the  distance  points. 


250  On  Technical  Perspective. 

DIAGRAM  6. 

In  the  whole  of  these  figures  the  scale  is  of  £  an  inch 
to  a  foot,  the  H.  L.  being  5  ft.,  and  the  point  of  distance, 
or  station  point  (s),  10  ft.  c  is  the  Centre  of  Vision. 

When  lines  recede  directly  from  the  spectator,  or,  in 
other  words,  are  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  the  picture, 
they  vanish  towards  the  point  of  sight.  TJiis  is  an  invari- 
able law,  and  we  will  apply  it  in  the  next  problem. 

To  draw  in  perspective  a  square  of  4  ft.  lying  on  the 
ground,  with  one  of  its  sides  parallel  to  and  touching  the 
picture  plane,  1  ft.  to  the  left  of  the  spectator. 

Now  it  is  clear  that  if  one  side  of  the  square  be  parallel 
to  the  picture  plane,  two  of  its  sides  will  be  at  right  angles 
to  it,  and  consequently,  according  to  the  rule  just  laid 
down,  will  retire  to  the  Point  of  Sight,  or  Centre  of  the 
picture  (c).  To  work  the  problem,  then,  first  measure 
1  ft.  to  the  left  side  of  the  spectator,  or  line  of  direction, 
on  the  Picture  or  Ground  Line  (G.  L. )  ;  then  4  ft.  further 
for  the  side  of  the  square  (A  B),  which  is  to  touch  the 
Picture  Plane.  From  A  and  B  rule  lines  to  the  Point  of 
Sight.  To  obtain  the  distance  of  the  back  (D  E),  mark 
off  4  ft.  from  A  towards  the  Line  of  Direction  (which  of 
course  will  be  to  B),  and  then  draw  a  line  from  B  to  Dis- 
tance Point  I ;  or,  measure  off  4  ft.  from  B  to  the  left  (A), 
and  then  draw  a  line  from  A  to  Distance  Point  2.  The 
intersection  at  D  or  E  will  cut  off  the  4  ft.  required ;  then 
a  line  parallel  to  the  front  line  will  complete  the  square  in 
perspective. 


H 


OS 


•*»v.~ 


GO 


v\ 

I 
I 

\ 
\ 


252  On  TecJmical  Perspective. 


DIAGRAM  7. 

To  draw  in  perspective  a  square  of  4  ft.  lying  on  the 
ground,  with  its  nearest  side  6  ft.  to  the  left  of  the 
spectator,  and  1  ft.  beyond  and  parallel  to  the  picture 
plane. 

First  measure  6  ft.  to  the  left  of  the  Line  of  Direction 
on  the  ground  line  (G.  L.)  as  at  A,  and  the  size  of  the 
square,  4  ft.,  to  B,  and  then  from  A  and  B  draw  receding 
lines  to  the  centre  of  the  picture  c.  Now  as  the  square 
in  -this  case  is  to  stand  1  ft.  in  the  picture,  or  beyond  the 
picture  plane,  mark  1  ft.  to  the  right  of  A,  and  draw  to 
Distance  Point  1,  which  will  intersect  the  line  A  c,  at  1  ft. 
in  the  picture  (at  D).  Or,  mark  1  ft.  to  the  left  of  B,  as 
at  F,  and  rule  to  Distance  Point  2,  which  will  intersect  the 
line  B  c  at  E,  1  ft.  in  the  picture  as  before,  thus  proving 
the  accuracy  of  the  rule. 

But  as  the  figure  required  is  a  square,  the  retiring 
lines  just  drawn  also  give  the  intersection  necessary  for 
drawing  the  back  line,  G  H,  thus  completing  the  square  in 
perspective  as  required. 

DIAGRAM  8. 

To  draw  a  right-angled  parallelogram  of  4  ft.  by  6  ft., 
one  side  (4  ft.)  being  parallel  to  and  touching  the  picture 
plane,  its  nearest  side  2  ft.  to  the  right  of  the  spectator. 

Mark  off  2  ft.   to   the  right  of  the  spectator,  on  the 


On  Technical  Perspective.  253 

0.  L.,  and  then  4  ft.  more  for  the  width  of  the  parallel- 
ogram, A   B,  and    rule    to    the    centre,   c.     Now    as    the 
parallelogram  is  to  be  G  ft.  long,  mark  6  ft.  to  the  right 
from    A,  as    at    F,  and  draw  a  line  to   Distance   Point  1, 
which  will  intersect  the  line  A  c  at  D,  6  ft.  (in  perspective) 
from  A  :  draw  the  line  D  E  parallel  to  the  G.  L.,  and  thus 
the  parallelogram  will  be  represented  in  perspective. 

NOTE. — The  three  diagrams  that  have  just  been  ex- 
plained may  also  be  worked  from  their  ground  plans, 

1,  2,  and  3.     Diagram   6   is  very  simple  :  first  draw  from 
A  and  B  to  the  centre  of  the  picture  c  ;  then,  for  the  width 
of  the  square,  find  the  perspective  of  the  diagonal  line  of 
the  original  square  1,  according  to  the  rule  laid  down  for 
Diagram  5  ;  and  as  this  diagonal  line  happens  to  form  an 
angle  of  45°  with  the  Ground  Line,  its  Vanishing  Point 
will  be  in  the   distance  point,    for,    as  has  been  already 
explained,  lines  forming  an  angle  of  45°   with  the  G.  L. 
always  vanish  in  the  Distance  Points. 

In  Diagram  7  extend  the  lines  of  the  square  to  the 
G.  L.  as  at  A  B  ;  whence  draw  to  the  Centre  of  Vision,  c. 
The  front  and  back  lines  will  be  found  by  extending  the 
diagonal  lines  to  the  G.  L.,  and  then  drawing  to  either 
of  the  Distance  Points.  Diagram  8  will  not  require 
explanation. 


On  Technical  Perspective.  255 

DIAGRAM  9. 

To  represent  a  Circle  in  Perspective,  2  ft.  to  the  left  of 
the  spectator  and  2  ft.  in  the  picture. 

It  will  be  evident  that,  as  only  straight-lined  figures 
are  amenable  to  the  Perspective  rules,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  find  a  number  of  points  in  Perspective  through  which 
to  trace  the  required  circle ;  therefore  a  ground  plan  will 
be  required,  which  must  be  surrounded  with  a  square,  and 
intersected  as  shown  at  1.  The  working  of  the  problem 
will  then  be  simple.  Extend  the  perpendicular  lines  of 
the  Ground  Plan  to  the  Ground  Line,  and  from  thence  to 
the  Centre  of  Vision,  c.  Now  produce  one  of  the  diagonal 
lines  of  the  Ground  Plan  to  the  Ground  Line,  as  at  A,  and 
from  thence  to  one  of  the  Distance  Points,  which  is  the 
Vanishing  Point  for  lines  at  45°.  At  each  intersection  of 
the  line  with  the  lines  going  to  the  Point  of  Vision,  c, 
draw  horizontal  lines,  which  will  give  points  through 
which  to  trace  the  required  circle  in  perspective. 

DIAGRAM  10. 

To  represent  a  Cube  4  ft.  square  in  Perspective,  2  ft. 
to  the  right  of  the  spectator,  and  1  ft.  in  the  picture. 

First  find  the  base  of  the  square,  as  in  Diagram  7 ; 
then,  at  A,  raise  a  perpendicular  line  4  ft.  for  the  height 
of  the  cube,  as  at  B,  and  from  B  draw  to  the  Centre  of 
Vision,  c  ;  at  c,  d,  and  e,  erect  perpendiculars ;  from  g 
draw  a  horizontal  line- to  /,  and  complete  the  Cube  in 
Perspective  by  drawing  from  i  to  h. 


D.P         V.P. 


V.P. 


DIAGRAM  11. 


G.U 


O.P  V.P.M.P.I. 


V..P.  M.P.2. 


50°! 

73" 

1 

i 

\ 

/ 

\ 

-      .                / 

\ 

/ 

G.L.                            \ 

1          G.L. 

\ 
\ 

i 
/ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

\ 

i 

\ 

j 

\ 

! 

\ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

X 

/ 

xv 

/ 

\x 

/ 

DIAGRAM  12. 


On  Technical  Perspective.  257 


DIAGRAM  11. 

Hitherto  the  diagrams  have  been  explanatory  of  the 
Parallel  view ;  this  diagram  and  the  next  are  preparatory 
to  the  clear  understanding  of  the  Angular  view. 

The  method  of  finding  the  Vanishing  Point  for  any 
line  has  been  shown  in  Diagram  5,  and  is  here  repeated, 
so  as  to  impress  it  more  strongly  on  the  mind.  It  has 
also  been  shown  that  the  Distance  Points  will  be  the 
Vanishing  Points  for  lines  at  an  angle  of  45°.  If  a  line 
should  slant  at  any  other  angle  to  the  Ground  Line,  it  will 
have  its  own  Vanishing  Point,  which  will  be  the  Vanishing 
Point  for  all  lines  at  that  angle.  In  this  diagram  the  line 
to  the  right  of  the  spectator  is  shown  at  an  angle  of  75°  to 
the  Ground  Line  (and  consequently  to  the  H.  L.),  and  the 
one  to  the  left  at  an  ansrle  of  50°. 


DIAGRAM  12. 

Measuring  Points  are  the  points  by  which  any  distance 
maybe  measured  on  a  receding  line  as  it  retires  into  the 
picture,  and  may  be  found  as  follows  : — Measure  from  the 
Vanishing  Point  to  the  Station  Point  with  the  compasses,  and 
then  set  off  on  the  Horizontal  Line  from  the  Vanishing  Point 
towards  the  Line  of  Direction,  which  will  give  its  Measuring 
Point.  It  must  be  remembered  that  every  Vanishing  Point 
has  its  own  Measuring  Point,  which  is  always  on  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  Line  of  Direction. 
17 


'3'd'lN 


Td'IAI 


On  Technical  Perspective.  259 


DIAGRAM  13. 

To  represent  a  cube  in  Angular  Perspective. 

This  may  be  done  in  two  ways.  First,  draw  the 
ground  plan,  A  B  c  D,  at  the  desired  angle,  and  (in  this 
case)  touching  the  G.  L.  Extend  D  B  and  D  c  respectively 
to  the  G.  L.  and  observe  the  angles  they  make  with  it  (viz. 
40°  and  50°).  Set  off  these  angles  from  a  horizontal  line 
at  s  (as  shown  in  Diagram  5),  and  extend  them  till  they 
meet  the  Horizontal  Line  (H.  L.),  which  will  give  the 
Vanishing  Points.  From  A  draw  to  the  two  Vanishing 
Points,  and  cut  off  the  proper  length  of  the  receding  line 
by  drawing  from  e  and  /  to  the  Vanishing  Points,  which 
will  give  the  base  of  the  Cube  in  Perspective. 

If,  instead  of  ruling  from  e  and /to  the  two  Vanishing 
Points,  we  measure  the  side  of  the  square — in  this  case 
4  ft. — to  the  right  and  left  from  A,  as  at  &  and  I,  and  then 
rule  to  the  Measuring  Points  1  and  2  (found  as  in  Diagram 
12),  the  same  intersection  will  take  place,  and  the  Square  in 
Perspective  be  obtained. 

At  A  erect  a  perpendicular  line  (4  ft. )  to  g,  and  rule  to 
the  two  Vanishing  Points.  At  each  corner  of  the  square 
also  raise  perpendiculars  till  they  meet  the  receding  lines, 
and  from  the  top  of  these,  again,  by  ruling  to  the  Vanishing 
Points,  the  Cube  will  be  completed. 

This  problem  should  be  repeated  till  the  student  finds  it 
quite  easy. 


260  On  TecJinical  Perspective. 


DlAGKAM  14. 

This  diagram  is  given  as  a  further  illustration  of  the 
foregoing  rules,  and  if  the  student  has  understood  and 
worked  the  previous  problems,  he  will  have  little  difficulty 
in  understanding  and  executing  this.  He  will  also  have 
prepared  himself  for  more  readily  and  intelligently  appre- 
ciating any  plans  and  perspective  drawings  of  buildings 
or  machinery  that  may  come  before  him  in  the  business 
of  life. 

The  student  who  has  gone  carefully  and  thoughtfully 
through  this  little  book  will  find  that  he  has  been  moving 
on  some  of  those  only  safe  lines  of  true  education  which 
fit  a  man  for  the  highest  purposes  and  business  of  his 
being. 


APPENDIX. 


A.-ON  CHILDREN'S  DEAWING. 

THE  Question  is  often  asked,  '  Ought  young  children  to 
learn  to  draw  ?  ' 

We  answer  decidedly  in  the  affirmative,  but  not  neces- 
sarily by  set  lessons,  except  on  the  Kindergarten  system. 

The  chief  purpose  in  letting  a  young  child  draw  is  that 
it  may  not  lose  the  power  of  seeing  things  as  they  appear, 
whilst  at  the  same  time  it  is  learning  what  their  shapes 
really  are.  It  is  quite  remarkable  how  few  persons  do  see 
things  as  they  appear.  The  cause  is,  that  the  knowledge  of 
the  actual  shape  is  allowed  to  interfere  with  the  image  the 
shape  makes  on  the  retina.  The  image  on  the  retina  is  per- 
fect, but  it  requires  to  be  correctly  read  by  the  mind,  and 
this  can  only  be  accurately  done  by  long  and  careful  habit ; 
hence  the  difficulty  that  many  grown-up  persons  have  in 
sketching  even  a  book  or  a  box. 

Further,  it  may  be  asked,  '  What  kind  of  drawing  should 
young  children  be  encouraged  in  practising  ? ' 

We  again  answer  decidedly, — Let  them  draw  from 
the  things  around  them,  unless  there  be  some  systematic 
set  of  models  to  draw  from ;  and  these  should  be  very 
interesting,  otherwise  the  child  will  not  care  to  draw 

263 


264  Appendix. 


them.  In  work  of  this  kind  children  should  always  be 
interested,  or  more  harm  will  be  done  than  good.  Children 
should  never  be  praised  for  the  drawings  they  make,  but 
simply  commended  for  any  tightness,  neatness,  cleanness, 
or  special  effort.  Nothing  weakens  a  child's  efforts  more 
than  false  or  injudicious  praise. 

Ought  young  children  to  be  allowed  to  rule  lines  ? 

Most  assuredly.  A  nice  flat  ruler,  a  triangle  or  square, 
and  in  some  cases  a  pair  of  compasses,  are  excellent  in- 
struments to  put  into  the  hands  of  a  child  ;  but  neatness 
and  exactness  should  be  the  consequence,  for  this  is  their 
purpose.*  But  instruments  should  never  be  used  in  the 
free-hand  drawing  class  until  a  sketch  is  completed,  and 
then  only  for  the  purpose  of  showing  the  student  where  he 
has  failed. 

Children  who  have  been  encouraged  in  early  life  to  draw 
the  things  about  them  on  scraps  of  paper,  on  insides  of  old 
envelopes,  or  on  slates,  seldom  have  any  difficulty  in  under- 
standing perspective,  especially  such  perspective  as  is  ordi- 
narily used  by  artists. 


B.-THE  DIASOOPE. 

THE  ' Diascope,'  as  its  name  implies,  is  in  its  simplest 
form  merely  a  piece  of  cardboard  or  thin  wood,  with  an 

*  A  neat  flat  ruler  may  be  made  with  a  long  slip  of  cardboard,  or 
by  folding  over  and  over  a  half  sheet  of  foolscap  paper  and  gumming 
the  last  lap.  A  child  should  have  inche*  marked  on  his  ruler. 


Appendix. 


205 


aperture  cut  in  it  through  which  to  view  the  best  parts  of 
a  landscape  and  conceal  the  remainder.  It  may  be  of  any 
size  and  proportion,  but  a  convenient  one  may  be  made 
with  a  piece  of  cardboard,  say  seven  inches  by  five,  or 
larger,  with  an  opening  five  inches  by  three.  This  opening 
may  be  divided  at  the  inches  by  intersecting  threads,  per- 
pendicularly and  horizontally  (Fig.  205). 


FIG.  205. 

When  a  student  goes  to  Nature,  and  has  an  extensive 
view  before  him,  he  is  often  perplexed  to  know  how  much, 
or  what  part,  of  what  lies  before  him,  he  should  take  as 
his  sketch.  Let  him  with  one  eye  look  at  the  landscape 
through  the  '  Diascope '  when  held  at  from  six  to  ten 
inches  from  him,  and  move  it  to  the  right  or  left,  and  up 
or  down,  till  he  has  found  that  part  of  the  landscape  which 
will  give  him  the  best  material. 


266 


Appendix. 


0.-PENOIL-IN-HAND  MEASUKEMENT. 

THIS  simple  and  convenient  method  of  measuring  the 
proportions  of  distant  objects  is  often  misunderstood,  by 
-  applying  it  to  the  size  of  objects,  with  which  it  has  nothing 
to  do.  It  is,  therefore,  here  described. 

Shut  one  eye  ;  hold  the  pencil,  as  in  Fig.  206,  at  arm's 
length ;  let  the  end  of  the  pencil  come  exactly  between  the 


FIG.  206. 


FIG.  207. 


eye  and  any  point  on  the  object  you  wish  to  measure  from  ; 
then  let  the  thumb  or  first  finger  move  along  the  pencil  as 
required,  till  it  reaches  the  point  you  wish  to  measure  to. 
Having  obtained  this  measurement,  it  can  now  be  com- 
pared with,  or  measured  into,  any  other  part  of  the  object 
or  picture  (being  most  careful  in  moving  not  to  bring  the 
hand  nearer  to  the  eye),  and  thus  ascertain  its  proportion. 


Appendix.  267 

In  all  measurements  the  pencil  should  be  held  at  arm's 
length,  and  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  face.  It  should 
always  be  remembered  that  these  measurements  have 
reference  only  to  the  proportions  of  objects,  and  not  to 
their  size.  Fig.  207  shows  how  the  pencil  is  held  when 
measuring  horizontally. 


D.-NOTE  ON  TEACHING. 

A  LONG,  varied,  and  extensive  acquaintance  with 
teaching  has  brought  the  conviction  that  Art  has  not 
had  its  proper  place  as  a  subject  to  be  taught,  nor,  as  a 
rule,  its  proper  treatment  as  a  factor  in  education.  Its 
importance  is  underrated,  and  the  teaching  of  it  is  often 
a  farce.  At  best  it  has  been  taught  pretty  much  as 
writing  is  taught ;  and,  to  a  very  limited  extent,  this  may 
be  right.  But  the  twenty-six  letters  of  the  alphabet  do 
not  constitute  a  language  ;  they  are  merely  arbitrary  and 
conventional  signs  by  which,  when  properly  arranged  and 
understood,  we  are  able  to  make  thought  visible. 

Art  is  as  truly  a  language  as  is  Greek  or  German  ; 
more  easy  to  read,  and  universal  in  its  application.  Wluit 
is  language,  but  that  by  which  thought  is  conveyed  from 
one  mind  to  another  ?  If  we  place  six  of  these  English 
signs  before  a  very  young  child,  or  an  intelligent  person 
not  conversant  with  English,  thus — kettle,  or  tea 


268  Appendix. 

pot,  or  three  -of  them,  cup — they  will  be  utterly 
meaningless ;  whilst  the  roughest  possible  sketch  will 
convey  a  correct  idea  to  the  mind  at  once. 


Instead  of  these  twenty-six  arbitrary  signs,  Art  has 
two  lines  as  fundamental,  the  straight  and  curved,  with 
which  we  may  express  almost  any  physical  fact — or,  to 
state  the  case  more  accurately,  without  which  scarcely  any 
physical  fact  can  be  satisfactorily  expressed. 

In  the  teaching  of  Art,  then,  we  claim  that  the 
grammar  which  governs  these  two  lines,  and  all  that 
belongs  to  them,  ought  to  be  taught  in  a  like  practical 
manner,  day  by  day,  with  black  board  or  other  illus- 
trations, the  same  as  Geography,  Mechanics,  or  any  other 
science,  and  thus  be  thoroughly  incorporated  in  our 
educational  system. 

It  is  true  that  Art — and  the  teaching  of  it,  also — has 
two  aspects  :  first,  the  commonplace,  utilitarian  one,  such 
as  should  be  taught  in  all  schools,  just  as  regularly  as 
writing  is  taught ;  and,  second,  the  emotional  aspect,  such 
as  applies  to  higher  Art  or  to  pictures. 


Appendix.  269 

In  this  utilitarian  work,  objects  should  be  used  in  pre- 
ference to  flat  copies,  though  both  are  important.  Copying 
from  the  flat  is  a  mechanical  operation  to  improve  eye 
and  hand  ;  but  the  copying  from  solid  objects  implies 
much  more  of  a  mental  conception,  and  is  most  important 
to  artisans  (as  well  as  to  those  who  rank  above  them),  that 
they  may  be  able  instantly  to  write  down  (draw)  a  thing 
itself  in  the  universal  language  of  Art,  as  well  as  under- 
stand that  which  is  drawn. 

There  is  yet  one  more  point  in  Art  instruction  to 
which  we  wish  to  make  reference,  viz.,  the  teaching  of 
Perspective,  as  it  is  usually  done  in  common  schools.  In 
some  middle-class  schools  it  is  not  taught  at  all.  Many 
works  on  Technical  Perspective,  both  cheap  and  excellent, 
have  made  their  appearance  during  the  last  few  years, 
and  these  are  used  largely  in  our  National  Schools  in 
preparation  for  Government  examinations.  In  view  of 
what  we  have  seen  in  the  preparation  for,  and  the  conse- 
quences of,  these  examinations,  we  cannot  but  agree  with 
Professor  Huxley,  when,  in  writing  on  Education,  he 
says:* — 'The  educational  abomination  of  desolation  of 
the  present  day  is  the  stimulation  of  young  people  to  work 
at  high  pressure  by  incessant  examinations.  .  .  .  They 
are  conceited  all  the  forenoon  of  life,  and  stupid  all  its 
afternoon.'  Although  he  is  speaking  here  of  education 
generally,  his  remarks  apply  with  special  force  to  Art 
teachings  and  examinations.  These  examinations  have  a 
reflex  effect  on  the  teachers  also,  and  in  honesty  we  must 
*  Fortnightly  Review,  January  1878. 


270  Appendix. 

say  (and  we  speak  that  which  we  do  know)  often  a  very 
mischievous  effect.  Professor  Huxley  says  :  *  — '  There  is 
much  to  be  done  before  the '  (present)  '  system  can  be  said 
to  be  thoroughly  satisfactory.  The  instruction  given  needs 
to  be  more  systematic,  and  especially  more  practical;  the 
teachers  are  of  very  unequal  excellence,  and  not  a  few 
stand  much  in  need  of  instruction  themselves,  not  only  in 
the  subjects  which  they  teach,  but  in  the  objects  for  which 
they  teach,  f  I  dare  say  you  have  heard  of  that  pro- 
ceeding, reprobated  by  all  true  sportsmen,  which  is  called 
"shooting  for  the  pot."  "Well,  there  is  such  a  thing  as 
"teaching  for  the  pot," — teaching,  that  is,  not  that  your 
scholar  may  know,  but  that  he  may  count  for  payment 
among  those  who  pass  the  examination  ;  and  there  are 
some  teachers — happily,  not  many — who  have  yet  to  learn 
that  the  examiners  of  the  Department  regard  them  as 
poachers  of  the  worst  description.' 

The  great  aim,  then,  of  the  true  Art  teacher  ought  to 
be  to  develop  all  the  quickness  of  eye  and  power  of  hand 
possible  to  his  pupils  (the  utilitarian  aspect);  and  then, 
as  time  and  circumstances  will  permit,  to  call  out  of — or,  if 
necessary,  instil  into — their  minds  such  emotional  and 
intelligent  power  of  observation  as  will  make  them  correct 
judges  of  Art  and  intense  lovers  of  Nature. 

*  Fortnightly  Review,  January  1878. 

f  The  italicising  is  not  Professor  Huxley's. 

THE    END. 


MANUAL  OF  MYTHOLOGY 

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DR.  JOHNS.  Being  a  narrative  of  Cer- 
tain F  vents  in  the  Life  of  an  Orthodox 
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12 mo,  cl>th,  §3.50. 


MY  FARM  OF  EDGEWOOD,  A 
Country  Hook.  By  the  author  of 
"  Reveries  of  a  Bachelor."  One  vol. 
12010,  cloth,  $1.75. 

THK  SAME.  New  and  cheaper  edition. 
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WET     DAYS     AT     EDGEWOOD. 

With  Old  Farmers,  Old  Gardeners,  and 
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RURAL  STUDIES.  With  Practical 
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VKL.  Illustrated  by  the  author.  OIM 
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PICTURES       OF       EDGEWOOD 

Being  Photographic  Views  (by  Rock- 
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grams by  the  author  of  "  My  Farm  of 
Edgewood."  One  vol.  410  Only  3oc 
copies  frinttd.  $12.00. 


%*  The  above    books  for  sale  by  all  booksellers,  or  will  be  sent,  pott  or  exprr»\ 
-.harges  p,ii<i,  upon  receipt  of  the  price  by  the  publishers, 

CHARLES   SCRIBNER'S   SONS, 

743  AND  745  BROADWAY,  NEW  YORK 


A  VALUABLE    LITTLE    BOOK- 


(Jonrisp  j&isfopg  of 


FROM  THE  COMMENCEMENT  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  ERA  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIMF 
By  H.  G.  B.  HUNT,  B.  Mus., 

Christ  Church,  Oxford. 
One  volume  neat  12mo,  with  numerous  Tables,  etc,     Cloth,  $1.00, 


Mr.  Hunt  has  produced  a  well-arranged  and  really  concise  history  ol 
the  subject  with  which  he  deals.  The  book  is  divided  into  three  sections, 
the  first  of  which  is  a  general  rev-iew  of  musical  epochs  and  events,  while 
the  second  presents  a  series  of  chronometrical  tables,  and  the  third  sum- 
marizes a  history  of  the  art.  The  student  ''is  warned"  in  the  preface 
"  that  he  is  not  to  expect  what  is  called  a  readable  book,"  but  we  feel 
bound  to  say  that  Mr.  Hunt's  work  is,  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word, 
far  more  readable  than  books  which  attempt  to  combine  valuable  informa- 
tion with  attractiveness  by  tricks  to  which  Mr.  Hunt  has  not  condescended. 
Those  who  care  to  follow  the  fortunes  of  opera  and  music  in  general 
cannot  do  better  than  to  turn  to  Mr.  Hunt's  little  book. 


CRITICAL    NOTICES. 

"As  the  book  now  stands,  it  is  the  most  concise  and  correct  history  of  music  that  we 
have  ever  seen  compiled  as  a  text-book No  musician,  and  in  fact,  no  con- 
noisseur or  person  making  any  pretension  to  musical  taste,  should  be  without  this  little 
work  as  a  ready  reference." — Chicago  Tribune. 

"The  book  is  not  only  a  remarkable  example  of  skillful  condensation,  but,  for  the  vast 
amount  of  valuable  information  that  is  crowded  within  its  narrow  limits,  is  without  com- 
parison. We  recommend  it  warmly  to  the  attention  of  musical  students.1' 

— Boston  Saturday  Eve.  Gazett*. 

'•The  entire  book,  admirably  made,  is.the  best  specimen  of  tnultum  inparvo  that  we 
have  seen  in  a  long  time." — ./V.  Y.  Mail. 

"The  subject  is  one  of  the  most  appropriate  for  study  in  schools,  and  we  know  no  other 
book  to  be  compared  with  this  one  for  such  use.  There  are  bulky  books  full  of  informa- 
tion, but  this  one  is  concise  and  methodical." — New  York  Observer. 

•*  As  a  textbook  for  school  study  or  private  reference,  we  have  seen  nothing  so  com- 
pact and  useful It  is  a  comprehensive  survey  of  the  whole  field,  from  the 

earliest   Greek  and   Egyptian   art  down  to  the  performance  of  Wagner's  Trilogy  at 
Hayreuth,  in  1876." — Springfield  Union. 

"  Altogether,  this  is  an  admirable  compend.  worth  more  than  many  pretentious  works, 
and  quite  indispensable  to  the  student  of  music.  As  a  text-book,  it  seems  to  be  one  of  the 
best  possible." — Boston  Globe. 

%*  The  above  book  for  sale  by  all  booksellers,  or  will  be  tent,  post  or  exp^eu 
charges  paid,  upon  receipt  of  the  price  by  the  publishers, 

CHARLES   SCRIBNER'S   SONS, 

743  AND  745  BROADWAY,  NEW  YORK, 


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